Countries with a temperate continental climate. Moderate climate in Russia. Arctic and Antarctic climate zones

Accent placement: CLIMATE CONTINENTALITY

CLIMATE CONTINENTALITY (from lat. continens - mainland) - a set of climate properties due to the influence of the land surface (as opposed to the water surface) on climate-forming processes. The nature of this influence of land follows from two main physical. differences between the active layer of land and water. 1) Land has a lower heat capacity and thermal conductivity than water, as a result of which: a) the same daily and seasonal fluctuations in the influx of solar energy create sharper fluctuations in the temperature of the land surface than the sea surface and, therefore, more significant. daily and annual amplitudes of air temperature; b) during advection of warm or cold air, land has a weaker cooling or warming effect on this air, as a result of which the daily variability of air temperature over land is sharper than over water. 2) Moisture reserves in the active layer of the land, in contrast to the sea, are limited, which limits evaporation. Air masses moving deep into the mainland gradually expend their moisture on precipitation without sufficient replenishment due to evaporation from earth's surface. As a result, precipitation is generally less on land than at sea. In addition, during the rainy period, the land replenishes moisture reserves, increases evaporation and contributes to the further continuation of rains, and in the dry period, on the contrary, prevents their renewal. Therefore, the variability of precipitation from year to year on land is greater than at sea.

Differences in physical properties of land and water are fully manifested directly along the coastline. However, due to continuous air transfers, the influence of the sea extends far into the interior of the continent and vice versa. Atmospheric predominant westerly transport air masses increases the influence of the ocean on the leeward parts of the continent lying to the east of it, while the influence on the continent located to the west is weakened. Accordingly, the influence of the continent on neighboring oceans also changes. As a result, the regions of maximum and minimum K. to. turn out to be displaced from the geometric. centers of continents and oceans on B (see diagram). Changes in the degree of solar radiation from place to place are most pronounced in the temperate zone, where seasonal fluctuations in the influx of solar energy and sharp changes in warm and cold air currents are especially strong. To the polar and especially to the tropical. and equiv. latitudes of change K. to. weaken. Numerous quantity attempts. estimates of K. to. were based on the use of the magnitude of the annual temperature amplitude, usually related to a certain geographical. latitude. According to Gorchinsky, the indicator where A is the amplitude of the annual course of the temperature, φ - geographical. latitude. Numeric coefficients. selected in such a way that for the most continent, places on the globe. Verkhoyansk, the indicator of K. to. was equal to 100. A. P. Galtsov.

Sources:

1. Brief geographical encyclopedia. Volume 2 / Main ed. Grigoriev A.A. M.: Soviet Encyclopedia - 1961, 592 p. from ill. and cards., 27 sheets. kart. and ill., 1 l. otd. cards

An impressive part of Europe lives in a temperate continental climate. Its uniqueness is in the presence of only one hemisphere - the Northern. What features distinguish temperate continental What animals and plants are characteristic of it? Understanding this is quite easy.

Key Features

The temperate continental climate is located only in the Northern Hemisphere. It is characteristic of both the Cordillera region and Central Europe. The temperate continental climate of Russia is manifested in Yakutia, the Magadan region, in Siberia and Transbaikalia. Moving inland, the air loses moisture, making the climate more severe. Therefore, the more distant the location of the region from the sea or ocean, the stronger the continentality of the climate will manifest itself.

winter months

The temperate continental climate is characterized by pronounced seasonality. The main seasons - summer and winter - should be considered separately. During the cold season, the earth's surface and atmosphere cool down, leading to the formation of the Asian anticyclone. It spreads to Siberia, Kazakhstan and Mongolia, and sometimes reaches southeastern Europe. As a result, it happens harsh winter with strong air fluctuations within just a few days, when the thaw abruptly turns into frost down to minus thirty. the form of snow that persists in the areas east of Warsaw. The maximum height of the cover can reach ninety centimeters - such snowdrifts are found in Western Siberia. A large amount of snow protects the soil from freezing and provides it with moisture when spring comes.

summer months

The temperate continental climate of Russia and Eastern Europe is characterized by a fairly rapid onset of summer. Increasing quantity solar heat warms coming to the mainland from the ocean. Average monthly temperatures in July are just under twenty degrees. The annual amount of precipitation, most of which falls precisely in the summer period, in these regions is from three hundred to eight hundred millimeters. The number changes only on the slopes of the Alps. There can be more than two thousand millimeters of precipitation. It is worth noting the decrease in their number in the direction from west to east. IN North America the situation is inversely proportional. In Asian areas, evaporation exceeds natural precipitation and droughts can occur.

Vegetation features

The temperate continental climate is characterized by deciduous forests. They consist of two tiers - trees and shrubs. The herbaceous cover is distinguished by a greater number of species than other flora variants. In addition, it is also divided into several tiers. forests are branched with a dense crown. The seasons are not conducive to year-round vegetation. shed leaves - simple, serrated or lobed, thin and not able to tolerate either drought or frost. temperate continental climate temperate zone can differ in both wide- and small-leaved species. The former include ash, maple, oak, linden, and elm. The second - aspen, alder and birch.

In addition, the forest can be divided into such types as monodominant and polydominant. The first are typical for Europe - a specific species prevails there. The latter are found in Asia, North America and Chile: the forest consists of many different species. In warm areas among deciduous trees there are evergreen species, as well as vines - grape, legume, honeysuckle or euonymus. Despite the annual fall of leaves, the forests of these zones are characterized by underdeveloped litter: the temperate continental climate contributes to its rapid decomposition. This creates excellent conditions for bacteria and earthworms. At the same time, the layer of foliage becomes an obstacle to moss, which grows in such a forest only at the roots of trees and in places protruding from the soil. The earth in this climate is podzolic, brown, carbonate or gley.

characteristic animals

The fauna of the continental climate is located in the forests very homogeneously. This is a combination of arboreal, terrestrial, herbivorous, carnivorous animals. In the zones of deciduous forests there are a lot of amphibians and reptiles - there are twice as many of them as in the tundra. The abundance of light, dense undergrowth, lush grasses become excellent conditions for various animals. Here there are animals that feed on seeds and nuts - rodents, squirrels, numerous birds, such as blackbirds, western nightingales, small robins, great tits, blue tit. In almost every forest you can meet a chaffinch and greenfinches, an oriole, and in remote corners - a wood pigeon. Larger animals are represented by ermines, badgers, wolves, foxes, lynxes and bears. They live throughout Europe and a large area of ​​Asia. In deserted corners there are unique species - wild cats, pine martens, ferrets. The presence of herbivores - red deer is great, there are bison and chamois.

Climate- this is a long-term weather regime characteristic of a particular area. It manifests itself in a regular change of all types of weather observed in this area.

Climate influences living and inanimate nature. In close dependence on the climate are water bodies, soil, vegetation, animals. Separate sectors of the economy, especially Agriculture are also highly dependent on climate.

The climate is formed as a result of the interaction of many factors: the amount of solar radiation entering the earth's surface; atmospheric circulation; the nature of the underlying surface. At the same time, climate-forming factors themselves depend on geographical conditions the area, especially geographical latitude.

The geographic latitude of the area determines the angle of incidence of the sun's rays, the receipt of a certain amount of heat. However, obtaining heat from the Sun also depends on the proximity of the ocean. In places far from the oceans, there is little precipitation, and the mode of precipitation is uneven (in the warm period more than in the cold), cloudiness is low, winters are cold, summers are warm, and the annual temperature amplitude is large. Such a climate is called continental, as it is typical of places located in the depths of continents. A maritime climate is formed above the water surface, which is characterized by: a smooth course of air temperature, with small daily and annual temperature amplitudes, high cloudiness, a uniform and fairly large amount of precipitation.

The climate is greatly influenced by sea ​​currents. Warm currents warm the atmosphere in the areas where they flow. So, for example, the warm North Atlantic Current creates favorable conditions for the growth of forests in the southern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula, while most of the island of Greenland, which lies approximately at the same latitudes as the Scandinavian Peninsula, but is outside the zone of influence of the warm current, all year round covered with a thick layer of ice.

plays an important role in shaping the climate relief. You already know that with the rise of the terrain for each kilometer, the air temperature drops by 5-6 ° C. Therefore, on the alpine slopes of the Pamirs, the average annual temperature is 1 ° C, although it is located just north of the tropic.

The location of mountain ranges has a great influence on the climate. For example, Caucasian mountains they hold back moist sea winds, and on their windward slopes facing the Black Sea, much more precipitation falls than on their leeward slopes. At the same time, the mountains serve as an obstacle to the cold northern winds.

There is a dependence of climate and prevailing winds. On the territory of the East European Plain, for almost the entire year, westerly winds prevail, coming from Atlantic Ocean therefore, winters in this area are relatively mild.

Districts Far East are under the influence of the monsoons. In winter, winds constantly blow from the depths of the mainland. They are cold and very dry, so there is little rainfall. In summer, on the contrary, the winds bring a lot of moisture from the Pacific Ocean. In autumn, when the wind from the ocean subsides, the weather is usually sunny and calm. This best time years in this area.

Climate characteristics are statistical findings from long-term weather records (in temperate latitudes 25-50 year series are used; in the tropics, their duration may be shorter), primarily over the following main meteorological elements: atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction, air temperature and humidity, cloudiness and precipitation. The duration of solar radiation, visibility range, temperature are also taken into account. upper layers soil and water bodies, evaporation of water from the earth's surface into the atmosphere, height and condition of snow cover, various atmospheric phenomena and ground-based hydrometeors (dew, ice, fog, thunderstorms, snowstorms, etc.). In the XX century. The climatic indicators included characteristics of the elements of the heat balance of the earth's surface, such as total solar radiation, radiation balance, heat exchange between the earth's surface and the atmosphere, and heat consumption for evaporation. Complex indicators are also used, i.e., functions of several elements: various coefficients, factors, indices (for example, continentality, aridity, moisture), etc.

Climatic zones

Long-term average values ​​of meteorological elements (annual, seasonal, monthly, daily, etc.), their sums, frequencies, etc. are called climate standards: the corresponding values ​​for individual days, months, years, etc. are considered as a deviation from these norms.

Climate maps are called climatic(temperature distribution map, pressure distribution map, etc.).

Depending on the temperature conditions, prevailing air masses and winds, climatic zones .

The main climatic zones are:

• equatorial;
• two tropical;
• two moderate;
• arctic and antarctic.

Between the main belts there are transitional climatic zones: subequatorial, subtropical, subarctic, subantarctic. IN transitional belts air masses change with the seasons. They come here from neighboring belts, so the climate subequatorial belt in summer it is similar to the climate of the equatorial zone, and in winter - to the tropical climate; the climate of the subtropical zones in summer is similar to the climate of the tropical, and in winter - with the climate of the temperate zones. This is due to the seasonal movement of atmospheric pressure belts over the globe following the Sun: in summer - to the north, in winter - to the south.

Climatic zones are divided into climatic regions. So, for example, in tropical zone In Africa, areas of tropical dry and tropical humid climates are distinguished, and in Eurasia, the subtropical zone is divided into areas of the Mediterranean, continental and monsoon climate. In mountainous areas, altitudinal zonation is formed due to the fact that air temperature decreases with height.

Diversity of Earth's climates

The classification of climates provides an ordered system for characterizing climate types, their zoning and mapping. Let us give examples of climate types prevailing over vast territories (Table 1).

Arctic and Antarctic climate zones

Antarctic and arctic climate dominates in Greenland and Antarctica, where the average monthly temperatures are below 0 °C. Into the dark winter time During the year, these regions receive absolutely no solar radiation, although there are twilights and auroras. Even in summer Sun rays fall on the earth's surface at a slight angle, which reduces the heating efficiency. Most of the incoming solar radiation is reflected by the ice. In both summer and winter, low temperatures prevail in the elevated regions of the Antarctic Ice Sheet. The climate of the interior of Antarctica is much colder than the climate of the Arctic, since the southern mainland is large and high, and the Arctic Ocean moderates the climate, despite the wide distribution of pack ice. In summer, during short periods of warming, drift ice sometimes melts. Precipitation on ice sheets falls in the form of snow or small particles of ice mist. Inland regions receive only 50-125 mm of precipitation annually, but more than 500 mm can fall on the coast. Sometimes cyclones bring clouds and snow to these areas. Snowfalls are often accompanied strong winds, which carry significant masses of snow, blowing it off the slope. Strong katabatic winds with snowstorms blow from the cold glacial sheet, bringing snow to the coast.

subarctic continental climate formed in the north of the continents (see. climate map atlas). In winter, arctic air prevails here, which is formed in areas of high pressure. In the eastern regions of Canada, Arctic air is distributed from the Arctic.

Continental subarctic climate in Asia, it is characterized by the largest annual amplitude of air temperature on the globe (60-65 ° С). The continentality of the climate here reaches its limit.

average temperature in January it varies across the territory from -28 to -50 °С, and in the lowlands and hollows, due to air stagnation, its temperature is even lower. In Oymyakon (Yakutia), a record negative air temperature for the Northern Hemisphere (-71 °C) was registered. The air is very dry.

Summer in subarctic belt although short, but quite warm. The average monthly temperature in July ranges from 12 to 18 °C (daily maximum is 20-25 °C). Over the summer, more than half of the annual amount of precipitation falls, amounting to 200-300 mm on the flat territory, and up to 500 mm per year on the windward slopes of the hills.

The climate of the subarctic zone of North America is less continental than the corresponding climate of Asia. It has less cold winters and colder summers.

temperate climate zone

Temperate climate western coasts of the continents has pronounced features of the maritime climate and is characterized by the predominance of sea air masses throughout the year. It is observed on the Atlantic coast of Europe and the Pacific coast of North America. The Cordilleras are a natural boundary separating the coast with a maritime type of climate from the inland regions. The European coast, except for Scandinavia, is open to the free access of temperate maritime air.

The constant transfer of sea air is accompanied by high cloudiness and causes protracted springs, in contrast to the interior of the continental regions of Eurasia.

winter in temperate zone warm on the western coasts. The warming effect of the oceans is enhanced by warm sea currents washing the western shores of the continents. The average temperature in January is positive and varies across the territory from north to south from 0 to 6 °C. Intrusions of arctic air can lower it (on the Scandinavian coast down to -25°C, and on the French coast down to -17°C). With the spread of tropical air to the north, the temperature rises sharply (for example, it often reaches 10 ° C). In winter, on the western coast of Scandinavia, there are large positive temperature deviations from the average latitude (by 20 ° C). The temperature anomaly on the Pacific coast of North America is smaller and does not exceed 12 °С.

Summer is rarely hot. The average temperature in July is 15-16°C.

Even during the day, the air temperature rarely exceeds 30 °C. Due to frequent cyclones, cloudy and rainy weather is typical for all seasons. There are especially many cloudy days on the western coast of North America, where cyclones are forced to slow down in front of the Cordillera mountain systems. In connection with this, the weather regime in the south of Alaska is characterized by great uniformity, where there are no seasons in our understanding. Eternal autumn reigns there, and only plants remind of the onset of winter or summer. Annual rainfall ranges from 600 to 1000 mm, and on the slopes of mountain ranges - from 2000 to 6000 mm.

In conditions of sufficient moisture, broad-leaved forests are developed on the coasts, and in conditions of excessive moisture, coniferous forests. The lack of summer heat reduces the upper limit of the forest in the mountains to 500-700 m above sea level.

The temperate climate of the eastern coasts of the continents It has monsoonal features and is accompanied by a seasonal change of winds: in winter, northwestern flows predominate, in summer - southeast. It is well expressed on the eastern coast of Eurasia.

In winter, with a northwest wind, cold continental temperate air spreads to the coast of the mainland, which is the reason for the low average temperature of the winter months (from -20 to -25 ° C). Clear, dry, windy weather prevails. In the southern regions of the coast, there is little rainfall. The north of the Amur region, Sakhalin and Kamchatka often fall under the influence of cyclones moving over Pacific Ocean. Therefore, in winter there is a thick snow cover, especially in Kamchatka, where its maximum height reaches 2 m.

In summer, with a southeasterly wind, temperate sea air spreads on the coast of Eurasia. Summers are warm, with an average July temperature of 14 to 18 °C. Precipitation is frequent due to cyclonic activity. Their annual amount is 600-1000 mm, and most of it falls in the summer. Fog is frequent at this time of the year.

Unlike Eurasia, the east coast of North America is characterized by sea ​​features climate, which are expressed in the predominance of winter precipitation and the marine type of the annual variation in air temperature: the minimum occurs in February, and the maximum occurs in August, when the ocean is at its warmest.

The Canadian anticyclone, unlike the Asian one, is unstable. It forms far from the coast and is often interrupted by cyclones. Winter here is mild, snowy, wet and windy. In snowy winters, the height of snowdrifts reaches 2.5 m. With a southerly wind, icy conditions often occur. Therefore, some streets in some cities in eastern Canada have iron railings for pedestrians. Summers are cool and rainy. The annual rainfall is 1000 mm.

temperate continental climate it is most clearly expressed on the Eurasian continent, especially in the regions of Siberia, Transbaikalia, northern Mongolia, and also on the territory of the Great Plains in North America.

A feature of the temperate continental climate is the large annual amplitude of air temperature, which can reach 50-60 °C. IN winter months with a negative radiation balance, the earth's surface cools. The cooling effect of the land surface on the surface layers of air is especially great in Asia, where a powerful Asian anticyclone forms in winter and cloudy, calm weather prevails. The temperate continental air formed in the area of ​​the anticyclone has a low temperature (-0°...-40°C). In valleys and basins, due to radiation cooling, the air temperature can drop to -60 °C.

In the middle of winter, the continental air in the lower layers becomes even colder than the Arctic. This very cold air of the Asian anticyclone spreads to Western Siberia, Kazakhstan, southeastern regions of Europe.

The winter Canadian anticyclone is less stable than the Asian anticyclone due to the smaller size of the North American continent. Winters here are less severe, and their severity does not increase towards the center of the mainland, as in Asia, but, on the contrary, decreases somewhat due to the frequent passage of cyclones. Continental temperate air in North America has more high temperature than continental temperate air in Asia.

The formation of a continental temperate climate is significantly influenced by geographical features continental territories. In North America, the Cordillera mountain ranges are a natural boundary separating the coast with a maritime climate from the inland regions with a continental climate. In Eurasia, a temperate continental climate is formed over a vast expanse of land, approximately from 20 to 120 ° E. e. Unlike North America, Europe is open to free penetration of sea air from the Atlantic deep into the interior. This is facilitated not only by the western transfer of air masses, which prevails in temperate latitudes, but also by the flat nature of the relief, the strong indentation of the coasts and the deep penetration into the land of the Baltic and North Seas. Therefore, a temperate climate of a lesser degree of continentality is formed over Europe compared to Asia.

In winter, the Atlantic sea air, moving over the cold land surface of the temperate latitudes of Europe, retains its physical properties and its influence extends throughout Europe. In winter, as the Atlantic influence weakens, the air temperature decreases from west to east. In Berlin it is 0 °С in January, -3 °С in Warsaw, -11 °С in Moscow. At the same time, the isotherms over Europe have a meridional orientation.

The orientation of Eurasia and North America with a wide front to the Arctic Basin contributes to the deep penetration of cold air masses onto the continents throughout the year. Intense meridional transport of air masses is especially characteristic of North America, where arctic and tropical air often replace each other.

Tropical air entering the plains of North America with southern cyclones is also slowly transforming due to high speed its movement, high moisture content and continuous low cloudiness.

In winter, the result of intense meridional circulation of air masses are the so-called “jumps” of temperatures, their large daily amplitude, especially in areas where cyclones are frequent: in the north of Europe and Western Siberia, the Great Plains of North America.

In the cold period, they fall in the form of snow, a snow cover forms, which protects the soil from deep freezing and creates a supply of moisture in the spring. The height of the snow cover depends on the duration of its occurrence and the amount of precipitation. In Europe, a stable snow cover on the flat territory is formed east of Warsaw, its maximum height reaches 90 cm in the northeastern regions of Europe and Western Siberia. In the center of the Russian Plain, the height of the snow cover is 30-35 cm, and in Transbaikalia it is less than 20 cm. On the plains of Mongolia, in the center of the anticyclonic region, snow cover is formed only in individual years. The absence of snow, along with the low winter air temperature, causes the presence of permafrost, which is no longer observed anywhere on the globe under these latitudes.

In North America, the Great Plains have little snow cover. To the east of the plains, tropical air begins to take part in the frontal processes more and more, it intensifies the frontal processes, which causes heavy snowfalls. In the Montreal area, the snow cover lasts up to four months, and its height reaches 90 cm.

Summer in the continental regions of Eurasia is warm. The average July temperature is 18-22°C. In dry regions of southeastern Europe and Central Asia the average air temperature in July reaches 24-28 °C.

In North America, continental air is somewhat colder in summer than in Asia and Europe. This is due to the smaller extent of the mainland in latitude, the large indentation of its northern part with bays and fjords, the abundance of large lakes, and the more intense development of cyclonic activity compared to the interior regions of Eurasia.

In the temperate zone, the annual amount of precipitation on the flat territory of the continents varies from 300 to 800 mm; on the windward slopes of the Alps, more than 2000 mm falls. Most of the precipitation falls in the summer, which is primarily due to an increase in the moisture content of the air. In Eurasia, there is a decrease in precipitation across the territory from west to east. In addition, the amount of precipitation also decreases from north to south due to a decrease in the frequency of cyclones and an increase in air dryness in this direction. In North America, a decrease in precipitation across the territory is noted, on the contrary, in the direction to the west. Why do you think?

Most of the land in the continental temperate zone is occupied by mountain systems. These are the Alps, Carpathians, Altai, Sayans, Cordillera, Rocky Mountains, etc. In mountainous areas climatic conditions significantly different from the climate of the plains. In summer, the air temperature in the mountains drops rapidly with altitude. In winter, when cold air masses invade, the air temperature in the plains often turns out to be lower than in the mountains.

The influence of mountains on precipitation is great. Precipitation increases on the windward slopes and at some distance in front of them, and weakens on the leeward slopes. For example, differences in annual rainfall between the western and eastern slopes Ural mountains sometimes reach 300 mm. In mountains with height, precipitation increases to a certain critical level. In the Alps, the level of the greatest amount of precipitation occurs at an altitude of about 2000 m, in the Caucasus - 2500 m.

Subtropical climate zone

Continental subtropical climate determined by the seasonal change of temperate and tropical air. The average temperature of the coldest month in Central Asia is below zero in places, in the northeast of China -5...-10°C. The average temperature of the warmest month is in the range of 25-30°C, while daily highs can exceed 40-45°C.

The most strongly continental climate in the air temperature regime is manifested in the southern regions of Mongolia and in the north of China, where the center of the Asian anticyclone is located in the winter season. Here, the annual amplitude of air temperature is 35-40 °C.

Sharply continental climate V subtropical zone for the high-mountain regions of the Pamirs and Tibet, whose height is 3.5-4 km. The climate of the Pamirs and Tibet is characterized by cold winters, cool summers and low rainfall.

In North America, a continental arid subtropical climate is formed in closed plateaus and in intermountain basins located between the Coastal and Rocky Ranges. Summers are hot and dry, especially in the south, where the average July temperature is above 30°C. The absolute maximum temperature can reach 50 °C and above. In Death Valley, a temperature of +56.7 °C was recorded!

Humid subtropical climate characteristic of the eastern coasts of the continents north and south of the tropics. The main areas of distribution are the southeastern United States, some southeastern regions of Europe, northern India and Myanmar, eastern China and southern Japan, northeastern Argentina, Uruguay and southern Brazil, the coast of Natal in South Africa and the east coast of Australia. Summer in the humid subtropics is long and hot, with the same temperatures as in the tropics. The average temperature of the warmest month exceeds +27 °С, and the maximum temperature is +38 °С. Winters are mild, with average monthly temperatures above 0°C, but occasional frosts have a detrimental effect on vegetable and citrus plantations. In the humid subtropics, the average annual precipitation ranges from 750 to 2000 mm, the distribution of precipitation over the seasons is quite uniform. In winter, rains and rare snowfalls are brought mainly by cyclones. In summer, precipitation falls mainly in the form of thunderstorms associated with powerful inflows of warm and humid oceanic air, characteristic of monsoon circulation. East Asia. Hurricanes (or typhoons) appear in late summer and autumn, especially in the Northern Hemisphere.

subtropical climate with dry summers is typical of the western coasts of the continents north and south of the tropics. in southern Europe and North Africa such climatic conditions are typical for the coasts mediterranean sea, which was the reason to call this climate also mediterranean. A similar climate is in southern California, the central regions of Chile, in the extreme south of Africa and in a number of areas in southern Australia. All these regions have hot summers and mild winters. As in the humid subtropics, there are occasional frosts in winter. In hinterland in summer, temperatures are much higher than on the coasts, and often the same as in tropical deserts. In general, clear weather prevails. In summer, on the coasts near which ocean currents pass, there are often fogs. For example, in San Francisco, summers are cool, foggy, and the warmest month is September. The maximum precipitation is associated with the passage of cyclones in winter, when the prevailing air currents mix towards the equator. The influence of anticyclones and downward air currents over the oceans determine the dryness of the summer season. Average annual rainfall under sub tropical climate a ranges from 380 to 900 mm and reaches its maximum values ​​on the coasts and mountain slopes. In the summer, there is usually not enough rainfall for the normal growth of trees, and therefore a specific type of evergreen shrub vegetation develops there, known as maquis, chaparral, mal i, macchia and fynbosh.

Equatorial climate zone

Equatorial type of climate distributed in equatorial latitudes in the Amazon basin in South America and the Congo in Africa, on the Malay Peninsula and on the islands of Southeast Asia. Usually the average annual temperature is about +26 °C. Due to the high noon position of the Sun above the horizon and the same length of the day throughout the year, seasonal temperature fluctuations are small. Humid air, cloudiness and dense vegetation prevent nighttime cooling and maintain maximum daytime temperatures below +37 °C, lower than at higher latitudes. The average annual rainfall in the humid tropics ranges from 1500 to 3000 mm and is usually evenly distributed over the seasons. Precipitation is mainly associated with the intratropical convergence zone, which is located slightly north of the equator. Seasonal shifts of this zone to the north and south in some areas lead to the formation of two precipitation maxima during the year, separated by drier periods. Every day, thousands of thunderstorms roll over the humid tropics. In the intervals between them, the sun shines in full force.

A type of climate characteristic of the interior of large continents, characterized by a combination of very hot summers with convection-type rainfall and very cold, dry winters with little snowfall. Summer temperatures average around 20°C, while winter temperatures range from -10°C to -20°C in the coldest month. The annual rainfall is about 500 mm. The most characteristic landscape of the regions of this climate are meadows and steppes. Distinguish between temperate continental and sharply continental climate. There are areas of temperate continental climate in the interior regions of Poland and Hungary, in the steppe regions of Russia and North America.
A sharply continental climate is characteristic of the temperate zone of Central Siberia. Continental air from temperate latitudes dominates here throughout the year; therefore, extremely low winter temperatures (-25-44°C) and significant warming in summer (14-20°C) are characteristic. Winter is sunny, frosty, with little snow. Severely frosty types of weather prevail. The annual amount of precipitation is less than 500 mm. Summer is sunny and warm. The moisture coefficient is close to unity. The taiga climate is formed here.

Continental climate of temperate latitudes
In temperate latitudes, the continental climate is characterized by a large annual amplitude of air temperature (hot summers and cold winters), as well as significant temperature changes during the day. The continental climate differs from the maritime climate by a lower average annual temperature and humidity, in some cases increased dust content of the air. The continental climate is characterized by fairly low cloudiness and low annual precipitation, the maximum of which occurs in summer. The average wind speed, as a rule, is also low. The weather in regions with a continental climate is more variable than in regions with a maritime climate.

Continental climate of the tropics
In the continental climate of the tropics, annual fluctuations in air temperature are not as great as in temperate latitudes, and precipitation is much less than in a maritime climate.

Continental climate of polar latitudes
In the polar latitudes, the continental climate is characterized by large annual fluctuations in air temperature and very cold summers.

Relationship with other types of climate
The continental climate can spread in a weakened form to the parts of the oceans closest to the continents, with the flow of air masses from the mainland to the territory above the ocean throughout the year. The continental climate differs from the monsoon climate, which is formed due to the predominant influence of continental air masses in winter and maritime air masses in summer. There are gradual transitions between maritime and continental climates, such as climate Western Europe predominantly marine, the European part of Russia - moderately continental, Eastern Siberia - sharply continental, the Far East - monsoon.

A tropical climate is a type of climate characteristic of a tropical climate zone located approximately between 20° and 30° north and south latitude. In the Northern Hemisphere, the subtropical zone is located to the north of the tropical zone, the subequatorial zone is located to the south, and vice versa in the Southern Hemisphere - the subequatorial zone is located in the north, and in the south the tropics are replaced by subtropics.

The mainland tropical climate is characterized by very little rainfall. In winter, the temperature very rarely rises above fifteen degrees and falls below ten. But the summer is quite hot. In summer, the average temperature ranges from thirty-five to forty degrees Celsius. Temperature fluctuations occur several times during the day. Due to the absence of clouds, nights are most often cool and clear. Rapid temperature changes contribute to the destruction of rocks, which in turn leads to the formation of large masses of dust, sand and frequent sandstorms.

Tropical continental climate is located in North America in Mexico. In the southern part of Peru, Bolivia, northern Chile and Argentina and southern Paraguay and Brazil. In Africa, in the continental tropical zone are Mauritania, Morocco, Libya, Algeria, Chad, Mali, Niger, Egypt, Sudan. And also in the southern part of Angola, Namibia, Zambia, Botswana, Mozambique, Zimbabwe. And Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states and central Australia (Greater Victoria Desert)

Basically, these areas are belts of tropical deserts, so the climate inherent in these areas is sometimes even called the climate of tropical deserts. Cloudiness and precipitation here are very small, the radiation balance of the earth's surface due to the dryness of the air and the large albedo of the earth's surface is less than in equatorial belt. However, the air temperature is very high, since the heat consumption for evaporation is small. Summer is extremely hot, the average temperature of the warmest month is not lower than +26 and in some places almost 40. It is in the zone of tropical deserts that the highest temperature peaks on the globe (about 57) are observed. Winter is also warm with the temperature of the coldest month between 10 and 22 degrees Celsius.

Precipitation is rare, but heavy showers are also possible (in sugar up to 80 mm per day). Annual precipitation in most cases is less than 250 mm and in some places less than 100. There have been cases when it did not rain for several years in a row.

With generally weak winds, tropical deserts are characterized by dusty whirlwinds and even sandstorms (samums) carrying huge amounts of sand. They are associated with extreme overheating of the lower layer of sand.

The slide shows the Sahara and Kalahari deserts, the region south america with a semi-desert landscape of Gran Chaco, The capital of Peru is Lima

Oriental siera madre mountain system in the northeast of mexico, the sierra de juarez horn system in the south of mexico, the vicinity of the hermansberg village in the center of australia.

Alice Springs: Temperatures fluctuate around 20°C each day. In summer, during the daytime, the temperature often reaches 40 °C, the absolute maximum is 48 °C. In winter, the temperature is much lower, sometimes there are frosts down to -7 ° C, and the absolute minimum is -10 ° C, despite the fact that the city is located at the latitude of the Southern Tropic. The climate is very dry, there is very little or no rain at all, the amount of precipitation varies from year to year.

Sahara: The climate of most of the Sahara is strongly influenced by the northeast trade wind throughout the year. Relative humidity is 30-50%, a huge deficit of humidity and high evaporation (potential evaporation 2500-6000 mm) are typical for the entire desert area, with the exception of narrow coastal strips. There are two main climatic regimes: dry subtropical in the north and dry tropical in the south. The northern regions are characterized by unusually large annual and daily temperature fluctuations with cool and even cold winters and hot summers. The amount of precipitation has two annual maxima. In the southern regions, summers are hot, and winters are mild and dry. After the hot and dry season comes the summer rains. The cooler climate of the narrow coastal strip in the west is due to the influence of the cold Canary Current.

Windhoek: The city is located in a semi-arid climate region. During the summer months, the days are dry and the nights are cool. The maximum daily temperature in summer is 31 °C. In winter (months of June, July and August) there is usually a small amount of rain. The minimum temperature ranges from 5 °C to 18 °C. The nights are cold, but the temperature rarely drops below zero and it almost never snows. The maximum temperature during the day is about 20 °C. The average annual temperature, 19.47 °C, is relatively high for a city located at such an altitude on the edge of the tropical zone. This is due to the dominance of the warm northern air current and the mountains located to the south of the city, which reliably protect Windhoek from cold southerly winds.

The average annual rainfall, about 330 mm, does not allow the development of gardens and green spaces in the city without intensive artificial irrigation. Steppe vegetation with numerous shrubs prevails in the area of ​​the city. Droughts happen frequently.