What is the structure of the universe? The study of clusters and superclusters of galaxies makes it possible to create a model of the Universe on a large scale, that is, to determine how matter is distributed within a very large space. In this sense, the most significant result obtained

A neologism that arose along with a new object, thing, concept is not immediately included in the active composition of the dictionary. After a new word becomes commonly used, publicly available, it ceases to be a neologism. For example, the words Soviet, collectivization, collective farm, team leader, tractor driver, Komsomol member, pioneer, Michurinist, metro builder, virgin lands, lunar explorer, cosmonaut and many others.

Consequently, due to the continuous historical development of the lexical composition of the language, many words, back in the 19th century. perceived as neologisms with an abstract meaning (for example, fiction, liberty, reality, citizenship, humanism- humanity, idea, public, equality etc.), in modern language are part of the active stock of the dictionary.

And some words, having arisen quite recently (tax in kind, surplus appropriation, ukom, nepman, swagger, party maximum, party minimum, people's commissar etc.), managed to pass into the category of obsolete.

Reasons for the emergence of new words:

1) In everyday speech, we create new words for the following purposes:

1. With the help of a new word, we name new objects and phenomena: dutik boots, wheat variety "Dnepryanka".

2. However, we can create a name for a phenomenon that is well known, but does not have a verbal designation in the language. For example, the departure of the audience from the hall when they do not like the film is not at all new, but we do not designate this phenomenon with a special word. But one Sverdlovsk resident pointed out: “ The hall splashed».

3. Words are also created when we want to more clearly designate a phenomenon that has a name, instead of intricate, Thuringian porcelain is said to be finicky, the sealant is called sticky donut.

4. You can play with words. This is readily done by children who are learning the language, but adults are sometimes not averse to making up some kind of word for fun: “Since there is a fountain pen, there must be an autoleg. There is neither a new object nor an old phenomenon without a name. There is word-creation here for the sake of jokes, entertainment.

2) What is observed in everyday speech occurs in artistic or journalistic speech. Here, new objects created by the artist's imagination get new names: cybers at the Strugatskys, the best V. Zorin and others.

New words are divided into two groups depending on the reasons for their appearance in the language. Neologisms are new words created to denote new phenomena. All the rest are occasionalisms.

In addition to neologisms, which are the property of the national language, new words formed by one or another author stand out. One of them entered literary language, For example, drawing, mine, pendulum, pump, attraction, constellation, etc. (at M. Lomonosov), industry, love, distraction, touching(at Karamzin), fade away(by F. Dostoevsky), etc.

Others remain part of the so-called occasional author's formations. They perform figurative and expressive functions only in an individual context and, as a rule, are created on the basis of existing word-formation models, for example, mandolin, smile, sickle, hammery, chamberlain and many others (by V. Mayakovsky); roared, roiled ( B. Pasternak), furry, the country of Ant And Muravskaya country ( from A. Tvardovsky), magic, cellophane(by A. Voznesensky), broad-bodied, unfamiliarity, overworld, inflexibility and others (from E. Yevtushenko), etc.

Sources of new words

The sources of new words are: word formation and borrowing from another language. Since we are talking about borrowings in 3.2, here we will talk about the word formation of neologisms and occasionalisms.

Common Source new words is the formation of active word-building models or patterns: puffy boots - dutik, boiled - boiled "denim, the color of which is changed during boiling - cooking". Wed: tanned sheepskin coat - sheepskin coat; dutiki- probably like walkers, panties, although these are different models of word formation.

Occasionalisms are also created according to active word-building models, such formations are called potential words: There, the fortune-teller fiddled with dinner, which was heated on the Gretz kerosene stove, wiped her hands on her apron like a cook, took a bucket with enamel that had broken off in places and went out into the yard for water."(I. Ilf, E. Petrov. Twelve chairs).

Adverb like a cook formed according to the productive model “by- + adjective + -i”. We can use it to form a large number of words like: as a cook, as a student, as a journalist, as a driver and so on, depending on our imagination. The model is open. The education we receive in some cases seems unacceptable, like in a chef's way, in others - as if even existing, normative. This is the property of the productive model, in which the boundary between formative and occasional formations is blurred due to units that exist, as it were, at the tip of the pen, so it is impossible to say whether we chose them from our vocabulary or just created them in connection with an emerging need. expressions of thought.

Occasionalisms are also formed according to the word-pattern. In “Newspaper Portraits” by V. Konyakhin, the following series of words was created: “ The most hard-working, the most selfless patriots of their newspaper and their city are obtained from former work correspondents, engineer correspondents, rural correspondents, military correspondents, junkors and housewives correspondents. Their special advantage is their excellent knowledge of the geography and demography of all enterprises and dynasties of the city.».

Words " engineers" and "housewives" modeled after neighboring words. If desired, this series can again be continued, because there are many professions: teacher, physician.

Occasionalism can be obtained through the semantic transformation of the existing model. For example, in Y. Bondarev’s novel “The Shore”, the following adverbs are used: “ The attic reddened with tiles in hot beams withered by the sun, near - pines, illuminated in the morning on one side of the trunks "; "The lilac bloomed snow"; “Senior sergeant Zykin, in gloomy isolation, stared stone-like at the flame of the bowl”; “... a tinny jingle of corn in the wind».

Adverbs with the help of suffixes -o / -e are formed from qualitative adjectives and denote a feature related to the action: good writing - good writing. Here adverbs are formed from relative adjectives: morning, snowy, stone, tin. Has the general meaning of the resulting adverbs changed? Certainly. They stand for
sign of action through comparison: the trunks are illuminated by the sun as
it happens in the morning; the lilac blossomed like snow; stared as motionless as a stone; the buds rang like tin. And again we can replenish a number of similar formations: they blushed like bricks, walked woodenly, smiled heavenly.

Occasionally, occasionalism is a derivational synonym for an existing word. For example, instead of the standard talking shop V. Konyakhin in "Newspaper Portraits" uses the following: " He will not be offended, because in principle he does not go to these sayings».

The root of occasionalism is the same as that of the normative lexical unit, but the word-forming element has changed: instead of the suffix -ln-, the suffix -lk- is used. Here the scope for our imagination has been significantly reduced, we can only try on two or three suffixes for this root: talker, talker, talker, and absolutely
sounds strange" speaking". It must be said that these neoplasms are much less natural than the one used by the writer, and, therefore, if we were to think of including them in our text, most likely we would need some justification, explanation, assessment, in general - an apology to the reader for a clumsy creation. Or it would be necessary to create a special context that would justify our education.
For example: " There was not a hubbub around, but rather a talker - everyone broke into groups and talked, talked, talked about their affairs».

Finally, occasionalism can be created by the author, so to speak, according to an original project, as a result of an original combination of morphemes. For example, S. Kirsanov in the poem "Max-Emelyan" created from the verbs " sleep" And " wake up» two nouns: from usnyavins to prosnyavins. Nouns have no such model; this way of combining morphemes belongs to the poet.

Until now, we have considered occasionalisms that were built from the real morphemic material: existing roots, suffixes, interfixes, prefixes. However, cases have already been shown earlier when the word was built by the author directly from sounds, recall Marshak's "alinon". There is also a sword in "Smart Things" zing zeng- the word is also made up of sounds, and not of morphemes. These cases are rare and always artistically substantiated, for example, as an experiment. Here is a poem by V. Khlebnikov "Thunderstorm":

Whoa, whoa, whoa!

Take the Zocern. Ve-cerci.

Wow, wow!

Wrap, Wrap, Wrap!

Googog. Gak. Gakri.

Vivavevo...

It is given to someone, it is not given to someone to hear in this set of sounds the roar of a thunderstorm and a fraction of rain. For our topic, the very fact of trying to paint a picture not with musical, but with linguistic sounds is important. This extreme case co-creation. And for completeness of the description, it is necessary to mention it.

1.6.3 Test questions to consolidate the material

1. What groups is the vocabulary of the national language divided into?

2. What words refer to active vocabulary language? Give examples.

3. What words belong to the passive vocabulary of the language? Give examples.

4. What are the features of the process of loss of words by the language?

5. What groups are obsolete words divided into? Tell me about each in detail. Give examples.

6. How can obsolete words be used?

7. What are the ways to explain obsolete words in the text?

8. What words are called neologisms?

9. What are the reasons for the appearance of new words?

10. What are the sources of new words?

New words (neologisms)

Ways to explain obsolete words in the text

Obsolete words included in a literary text require explanation in some cases. It can be done:

1) in a footnote or in a dictionary after the text;

2) sometimes an explanation is given in brackets (see the article by Yuri Shatalov "The First Tomb of the Holy Prince" in Appendix 30);

3) more complex ways of interpreting obsolete words, included in the artistic presentation itself.

06turning to the book by V. Kataev "The Broken Life, or the Magic Horn of Oberon" , in which the word is for the author the same subject of memory as the people, things and events that surrounded him in childhood. Therefore, the meaning of the word is revealed in detail and lovingly, through a specially stipulated parallel with a modern word or through a live picture - a description of the subject:

“I really loved it when my mother took me with her to the Midget store for shopping. I must add that the Dwarf himself was always in a bowler hat, somewhat reminiscent of junk workers, since all the junk workers in our city wore bowlers and were called not junk workers, but "old-timers". », “We immediately - without wasting time - ran to the basement of Zhenya Dubastoy's house and quickly found a lot of all sorts of things there ... and among other things, a tube of universal glue "syndeticon", very popular at that far, far away time. ... "Syndeticon" really tightly glued a variety of materials, but in particular, fingers stuck together from it, which were then very difficult to unstick. This thick, smelly, amber-yellow glue had the ability to stretch in infinitely thin, infinitely long hair strands that stuck to clothes, furniture, walls, so that careless, hasty use of this universal glue was always accompanied by a lot of trouble ... ".

New words that appear in the language as a result of the emergence of new concepts, phenomena, qualities are called neologisms (from gr. neos- new + logos- word).

Neologisms are divided into two types:

1) lexical neologisms denote the appearance in life of new things, phenomena, qualities (for example, virgin lands, lunar, astronaut, etc.);

2) semantic neologisms- a new name for something that already has a name (for example, background - the lining of a peasant shirt, the hype - gold leaf, etc.).

A neologism that arose along with a new object, thing, concept is not immediately included in the active composition of the dictionary. After a new word becomes commonly used, publicly available, it ceases to be a neologism. For example, the words Soviet, collectivization, collective farm, team leader, tractor driver, Komsomol member, pioneer, Michurinist, metro builder, virgin lands, lunar explorer, cosmonaut and many others.

Consequently, due to the continuous historical development of the lexical composition of the language, many words, back in the 19th century. perceived as neologisms with an abstract meaning (for example, fiction, liberty, reality, citizenship, humanism- humanity, idea, public, equality etc.), in the modern language are part of the active stock of the dictionary.

And some words, having arisen quite recently (tax in kind, surplus appropriation, ukom, nepman, swagger, party maximum, party minimum, people's commissar etc.), managed to pass into the category of obsolete.

Reasons for the emergence of new words:

1) In everyday speech, we create new words for the following purposes:

1. With the help of a new word, we name new objects and phenomena: dutik boots, wheat variety "Dnepryanka".

2. However, we can create a name for a phenomenon that is well known, but does not have a verbal designation in the language. For example, the departure of the audience from the hall when they do not like the film is not at all new, but we do not designate this phenomenon with a special word. But one Sverdlovsk resident pointed out: “ The hall splashed».

3. Words are also created when we want to more clearly designate a phenomenon that has a name, instead of intricate, Thuringian porcelain is said to be finicky, the sealant is called sticky donut.

4. You can play with words. This is readily done by children who are learning the language, but adults are sometimes not averse to making up some kind of word for fun: “Since there is a fountain pen, there must be an autoleg. There is neither a new object nor an old phenomenon without a name. There is word-creation here for the sake of jokes, entertainment.

2) What is observed in everyday speech occurs in artistic or journalistic speech. Here, new objects created by the artist's imagination get new names: cybers at the Strugatskys, the best V. Zorin and others.

New words are divided into two groups depending on the reasons for their appearance in the language. Neologisms are new words created to denote new phenomena. All the rest are occasionalisms.

In addition to neologisms, which are the property of the national language, new words formed by one or another author stand out. Some of them entered the literary language, for example, drawing, mine, pendulum, pump, attraction, constellation, etc. (at M. Lomonosov), industry, love, distraction, touching(at Karamzin), fade away(by F. Dostoevsky), etc.

Others remain part of the so-called occasional author's formations. They perform figurative and expressive functions only in an individual context and, as a rule, are created on the basis of existing word-formation models, for example, mandolin, smile, sickle, hammery, chamberlain and many others (by V. Mayakovsky); roared, roiled ( B. Pasternak), furry, the country of Ant And Muravskaya country ( from A. Tvardovsky), magic, cellophane(by A. Voznesensky), broad-bodied, unfamiliarity, overworld, inflexibility and others (from E. Yevtushenko), etc.

What is it - a mistake in the speech of the XXI century, how to improve literacy and why do people in Russia like to capitalize their position so much? We talked about this and much more with candidate of philological sciences, senior researcher at the Russian Language Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences Elena Shmeleva.

AiF.ru: Elena Yakovlevna, what mistake in speech today can be called the most common and annoying ear?

Elena Shmeleva: This is a rather individual thing. Some are annoyed by the wrong accent. Once my son told me that he met a girl, he liked her, but after she said “they are calling”, he immediately stopped liking her. I am annoyed not so much by mistakes as by the inability to distinguish between the style of speech, that is, a person in public speech uses such words, expressions that are permissible only in the kitchen or in a pub. It seems to me that this is the main trouble of our speech now. An educated person who speaks well is one who, speaking in parliament, speaks one language; when drinking with friends - others. The inability to switch from one style to another is really a misfortune of our speech.

AiF.ru: Do you have an answer to the question of how to learn to speak well?

Elena Shmeleva: This is hard science. Previously, they were engaged in rhetoric, they taught speakers to speak. In order to speak well, there is one constant recipe - read more, listen to good speeches more. We imitate our parents, teachers, people we like, who we think speak well. We must try to rid our speech of unnecessary words, to check ourselves. That's what dictionaries are for. But we have a very low culture of their use. In general, no one speaks perfectly, there are always difficult words that cause doubt. For example, one person respected by you speaks so, and another - in a different way. If you have any doubts, do not be lazy, check in the dictionary.

AiF.ru: In order to speak better, you advised listening more to the correct speech, but what about improving literacy in writing?

Elena Shmeleva: This also requires more reading. Another issue is that now books are often published without a proofreader. Why do they say that you need to read more? Because the eye gets used to the spelling of the word, that is, without hesitation, you write the word the way you are used to seeing it. Now there are publications in which there are errors, people also write differently on the Internet, so it happens that the eye gets used to the wrong spelling. I think that sometimes the illiteracy that occurs in previously literate people is due to this very reason.

AiF.ru: Elena Yakovlevna, it is difficult to be literate in a country where everyone wants to write themselves with a capital letter. We have a million different "Presidents", "Chairmen of the Board of Directors", "Managers" in our country...

Elena Shmeleva: It really is kind of an obsession. For some reason, the capital letter is perceived as a sign of special importance. We are constantly arguing about this issue. According to the rules of the Russian language in a compound name, only the first word is capitalized, for example, Moskovsky State University. In the phrase " The State Duma» Only “State” should be capitalized. Our legislators are constantly arguing with us, because they believe that the word "Duma" must be written with a capital letter. It is impossible to explain to people that a capital letter does not mean that you will become more important person. They send us papers from the Federation Council, where it says “Third Assistant to the Minister ...”, all words with a capital letter. We try to explain that this is wrong, but, unfortunately, it does not work very well.

New words

AiF.ru: How do you assess the level of speech culture today?

Elena Shmeleva: If we talk specifically about the language, then I would not say unequivocally that before everyone spoke well, but now it is much worse. The people on the streets were talking and talking. Just earlier in the means mass media there was practically no lively, spontaneous speech. Everything was pre-written, rehearsed, checked by the editors. Therefore, there was a feeling that only the correct speech was heard from the radio and TV. And now there is a lot of live speech. Relatively speaking, the speech of the street is heard from the TV screens. This, of course, annoys many people, because TV and radio hosts, whose speech we used to perceive as a role model, now speak the same way as the people around them. That is, not the Russian language has changed, as linguists say, the conditions for the functioning of the language have changed.

"AiF.ru": What is the rate of appearance of new words in the language today, is it growing or falling?

Elena Shmeleva: The Internet contributes to the fact that new words disperse faster across the country. Another thing is what to call a new word. Some borrowed or buzzword appeared and very quickly went on the Internet, everyone began to use it. But then this word in the language may not be fixed, the fashion will pass - and that's it. We are in no hurry to include new words in the dictionary. There are different systems of lexicography. I am sometimes asked why American dictionaries more than ours, they have so many more words? The tradition of Russian lexicography is that we are waiting for the word to really enter the Russian language, we are waiting for a while. And American lexicographers, as soon as the word appeared in the language, in the same year it was added to the explanatory dictionary.

AiF.ru: How long do they wait to add a word?

Elena Shmeleva: Not only time plays a role, but also the breadth of use. Usually, at first, a word is included in a dictionary of new words or a dictionary of foreign words, and new words are entered into the explanatory dictionary, as a rule, in ten or even twenty years. But I'm talking about this in a nutshell. It happens that it quickly becomes clear that a word seems familiar and widely used to everyone, but it is still not in the explanatory dictionary, since our explanatory dictionaries are rarely reprinted. It turns out that in our explanatory dictionaries not only are there not many words, but there are also many new meanings. For example, the words “positive” and “negative” have only a photographic meaning, and given that most people now shoot with digital cameras, it turns out quite funny, because these words now have a completely different meaning. But dictionaries do not have this, and this is bad, because dictionaries still have to keep up with the times.