Armament of the army of Ancient Rome (21 photos). Armament and armor of the ancient Roman army Arms and armor of the ancient Romans

Trajan, who ruled in Rome from 98 to 117 AD, went down in history as a warrior emperor. Under his leadership, the Roman Empire reached its maximum power, and the stability of the state and the absence of repression during his reign allowed historians to deservedly consider Trajan the second of the so-called "five good emperors." The contemporaries of the emperor would probably agree with this assessment. The Roman Senate officially proclaimed Trajan "the best ruler" (optimus princeps), and subsequent emperors were guided by him, receiving parting words during the accession "to be more successful than Augustus, and better than Trajan" (Felicior Augusto, melior Traiano). During the reign of Trajan, the Roman Empire conducted several successful military campaigns and reached largest sizes throughout its history.

The equipment of the Roman legionnaires during the reign of Trajan was distinguished by functionality. The centuries-old military experience accumulated by the Roman army was harmoniously combined in it with the military traditions of the peoples conquered by the Romans. We invite you to take a closer look at the weapons and equipment of a Roman legionary infantryman of the early 2nd century AD in the Warspot interactive special project.

Helmet

As early as the beginning of the 1st century AD, Roman gunsmiths on the Upper Rhine, taking as a basis the Celtic helmet model that had previously existed in Gaul, began to make combat headpieces with a deep solid forged iron dome, a wide backplate to protect the neck, and an iron visor in front, additionally covering the face from those applied from above chopping blows, and large cheek-pieces, equipped with chased ornaments. On the front, the dome of the helmet was decorated with chased ornaments in the form of eyebrows or wings, which allowed some researchers to attribute the first such helmets to the warriors of the Lark Legion (V Alaudae), recruited by Julius Caesar among the Romanized Gauls.

One more feature helmets of this type were cutouts for the ears, closed on top with bronze lining. Bronze decorations and onlays are also characteristic, which look very effective against the background of the light surface of the helmet's polished iron. Elegant and extremely functional, this type of helmet of the Gallic series by the end of the 1st century became the predominant model of the battle headgear in the Roman army. According to his model, weapons workshops located in Italy, as well as in other provinces of the Roman Empire, began to forge their products. An additional feature that appeared, apparently, during the Dacian wars of Trajan, was an iron cross, which began to reinforce the dome of the helmet from above. This detail was supposed to give even greater strength to the helmet and protect it from the blows of the terrible dac scythes.

Plate armor

The reliefs of Trajan's Column, erected in Rome in 113 to commemorate the conquest of Dacia, depict legionnaires dressed in plate armor, the so-called. lorica segmentata, while auxiliaries infantry and cavalry wear mail or scale armor. But such a division is certainly not true. Contemporary reliefs of the Trajan's Trophy Columns at Adamiklissia depict legionnaires dressed in chain mail, and archaeological finds of pieces of plate armor in the frontier forts occupied by auxiliary units indicate that the soldiers in these units wore lorica.

The name lorica segmentata is a modern term for the name of the plate armor, known from numerous images of the 1st-3rd centuries. His Roman name, if any, remains unknown. The oldest finds of plates of this armor come from excavations near Mount Kalkriese in Germany, identified as the site of a battle in the Teutoburg Forest. Thus its appearance and distribution date back to the final stage of the reign of Augustus, if not earlier. Various points of view have been expressed regarding the origin of this type of armor. Some derive it from the solid armor worn by the Gallic gladiators croupellari, others see it as an oriental development, better adapted to hold the arrows of the Parthian archers in comparison with traditional chain mail. It is also unclear the extent to which plate armor was distributed in the ranks of the Roman army: whether soldiers wore it everywhere or only in some separate special units. The degree of distribution of finds of individual parts of the armor rather testifies in favor of the first hypothesis, however, there can be no question of the uniformity of protective weapons in the style of images of the reliefs of Trajan's Column.

In the absence of real finds, many different hypotheses were put forward about the structure of plate armor. Finally, in 1964, during excavations of the border fort in Corbridge (Britain), two well-preserved pieces of armor were found. This allowed the British archaeologist H. Russell Robinson to reconstruct the lorica segmentata of the late 1st century, as well as to draw certain conclusions about the structure of the armor of a later period, previously found during excavations at Newstead. Both armor belonged to the so-called laminar type of armor. Horizontal stripes, slightly funnel-shaped, were riveted on the inside of a leather belt. The plates overlapped slightly on top of each other and formed an extremely flexible metal coating for the hull. Two semicircular sections made up the right and left parts of the armor. With the help of straps, they were fastened on the back and chest. A separate composite section was used to cover the upper chest. With the help of straps or hooks, the bib was connected to the corresponding side half. From above, flexible shoulder pads were attached to the breastplate. To put on the armor, it was necessary to put your hands into the side cutouts and fasten it on your chest, as you fasten a vest.

Plate armor was strong, flexible, light and at the same time very reliable means of protection. In this capacity, he existed in the Roman army from the beginning of the 1st to the middle of the 3rd century AD.

Bracers

On the reliefs of Trajan's Trophy at Adamiklissi, some Roman soldiers wear bracers to protect their forearms and hands. This piece of equipment is of oriental origin and is a vertical row of plates riveted on the inside to a belt in the full length of the arm. In the Roman army, this type of protective equipment was used quite rarely, however, judging by the images, it was worn by gladiators. When Trajan's troops began to suffer heavy losses from the blows of the Dacian braids, he ordered to protect the hands of his soldiers with the same armor. Most likely, this was a short-term measure, and in the future this piece of equipment did not take root in the army.

Sword

In the middle - second half of the 1st century, a sword with a blade 40–55 cm long, 4.8 to 6 cm wide and with a rather short edge became widespread in the Roman army. Judging by the proportion of the blade, it was mainly intended for cutting the enemy, who did not wear protective armor. Its shape already very vaguely resembled the original gladius, hallmark which was a long and thin point. These modifications of weapons corresponded to the new political situation on the borders of the empire, whose enemies from now on were the barbarians - Germans and Dacians.

Legionnaires carried a sword in a frame scabbard. On the front side, they were decorated with bronze cut-out plates with geometric patterns and figured images. The scabbard had two pairs of clips, on the sides of which side rings were attached. Through them passed the end of the belt, split in two, on which the scabbard with the sword was hung. The lower end of the belt was passed under the belt and connected to the lower ring, the upper end passed over the belt to the upper ring. Such a mount provided a secure fixation of the scabbard in a vertical position and made it possible to quickly draw the sword without holding the scabbard with your hand.

Dagger

On the left side on the waist belt, the Roman legionnaires continued to wear a dagger (not visible in the illustration). Its wide blade was forged from iron, had a stiffening rib, symmetrical blades and an elongated point. The length of the blade could reach 30-35 cm, width - 5 cm. The dagger was worn in a frame sheath. The front side of the scabbard was usually richly inlaid with silver, brass or decorated with black, red, yellow or green enamel. The scabbard was hung from the belt with a pair of belts passed through two pairs of side rings. With such a suspension, the handle was always directed upwards, and the weapon was constantly ready for combat use.

Pilum

On the reliefs of Trajan's Column, Roman legionaries carry a pilum, which at this time retains its significance as a first-strike weapon. Judging by the archaeological finds, its design has not changed since earlier times.

Some soldiers, who were distinguished by great physical strength, supplied the shaft of the pilum with spherical lead nozzles, which increased the weight of the weapon and, accordingly, increased the severity of the blow inflicted by it. These attachments are known from pictorial monuments II – III centuries, but among the real archaeological finds have not yet been found.

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Shield

At the end of the 1st century BC, the oval shield, known from the images of the era of the Republic, straightened the upper and lower faces, and by the middle of the century, the side faces also became straight. The shield thus acquired a quadrangular shape, known from the reliefs on Trajan's Column. At the same time, oval-shaped shields, known from images of an earlier time, continued to be in use.

The design of the shield remained the same as before. Its dimensions, judging by the proportions of the figures of warriors, were 1 × 0.5 m. These figures are in good agreement with archaeological finds of a later time. The base of the shield was made of three layers of thin wooden planks glued at right angles to each other. The thickness of the wood, judging by the surviving rivets of the umbons, was about 6 mm.

From the outside, the shield was covered with leather and richly painted. The depicted scenes included laurel wreaths, lightning bolts of Jupiter, as well as emblems of individual legions. Along the perimeter, the edges of the shield were upholstered with bronze clips so that the tree would not chip from the blows of enemy swords. In the hand, the shield was held by the handle formed by a transverse wooden plank. In the center of the field of the shield, a semicircular cut was made, into which the brush holding the handle was inserted. Outside, the cutout was closed with a bronze or iron umbon, which, as a rule, was richly decorated with engraved images. The weight of a modern reconstruction of such a shield was approximately 7.5 kg.

Tunic

The soldier's tunic has not changed much since previous times. As before, it was cut from two rectangular pieces of woolen fabric about 1.5 × 1.3 m, sewn on the sides and at the neck. The cutout for the head and neck remained wide enough so that during field work, for greater freedom of movement, soldiers could lower one of her sleeves, completely exposing the right shoulder and arm. At the waist, the tunic was gathered in folds and girdled with a belt. A high-belted tunic that opened the knees was considered a sign of the military.

In the cold season, some soldiers wore two tunics, while the lower one was made of linen or fine wool. The Romans did not know any specific statutory color of clothing. Most of the soldiers wore tunics made of undyed wool. Those who were richer could wear tunics of red, green or blue. In ceremonial conditions, officers and centurions dressed in bright white tunics. To decorate tunics, two strips of bright color were sewn on their sides - the so-called claves. The usual cost of tunics was 25 drachmas, and this amount was deducted from the soldier's salary.

Trousers

The Romans, like the Greeks, considered trousers an attribute of barbarism. In the cold season, they wore woolen windings on their legs. Short pants to protect the skin of the thighs from horse sweat were worn by Gallic and German horsemen, who had served in the Roman army en masse since the time of Caesar and Augustus. In the cold season, they were also worn by the foot soldiers of the auxiliary troops, also recruited from among the non-Romanized subjects of the empire.

The legionnaires depicted on Trajan's Column still do not wear trousers, but Emperor Trajan himself and senior officers who rode for a long time are depicted wearing narrow and short breeches. During the first half of the 2nd century, the fashion for these clothes spread among all categories of troops, and on the reliefs of the Column of Marcus Aurelius, short trousers are already worn by all categories of troops.

Tie

On the reliefs of Trajan's Column, soldiers are depicted with ties. Their function is to protect the upper part of the tunic from friction and damage caused by armor. Another purpose of the tie is clarified by its late name "sudarion", which comes from the Latin sudor - "sweat".

Penula

In inclement weather or in the cold season, soldiers wore raincoats over their clothes and armor. Penula was one of the most common raincoat models. It was woven from coarse sheep or even goat wool. The civilian version of the cloak, called lacerna, had a finer dressing. The shape of the penula resembled a half oval, the straight sides of which closed in front and were fastened with two pairs of buttons.

On some sculptural images, the incision is missing. In this case, the penula, like a modern poncho, had the shape of an oval with a central hole and was worn over the head. To protect against the weather, she was supplied with a deep hood. In a civilian lacerne, such a hood, as a rule, was attached. The length of the penula reached the knees. Being wide enough, it allowed the soldiers to freely operate with their hands without removing their cloak. On frescoes and color images, the military cloak is usually brown.

Kaligi

The soldier's shoes were heavy boots of the Kaliga. The shoe blank was cut from one piece of thick bovine leather. The toes in the shoe remained open, and the straps covering the sides of the foot and ankle were cut through, which provided good ventilation to the legs.

The sole consisted of 3 layers stitched with each other. For greater strength, it was nailed from below with iron nails. It took 80–90 nails to tamp one shoe, while the weight of a pair of caligas reached 1.3–1.5 kg. The nails on the sole were located in a certain pattern, reinforcing those parts of it that wore out more during the campaign.

According to the observations of modern reenactors, nailed shoes were worn well on dirt roads and in the field, but in the mountains and on the cobblestones of city streets they slid over stones. In addition, the nails on the sole gradually wore out and required constant replacement. One pair of caligas was enough for about 500-1000 km of the march, while every 100 km of the way, 10 percent of the nails had to be changed. Thus, in two or three weeks of march, the Roman legion lost about 10 thousand nails.

Belt

The belt was an important part menswear Romans. Boys wore a belt as a sign of coming of age. The military wore wide leather belts, which distinguished them from civilians. The belt was worn over the armor and richly decorated with bronze relief or engraved overlays. For a decorative effect, the lining was sometimes covered with silver and provided with enamel inserts.

Roman belts of the late 1st century BC - early 2nd century AD had a kind of apron of 4-8 belts, covered with bronze overlays and ending with terminal ornaments. Apparently, this detail performed a purely decorative function and was worn for the sake of the sound effect it created. A dagger was hung from the belt, sometimes a purse with small money. The Romans usually wore a sword on a shoulder harness.

Leggings

Leggings were part of the protective armor that covered the legs from the knee to the instep of the foot, that is, they covered that part of them that was not usually covered by a shield. Officers and centurions on the monuments of the 1st-2nd centuries were often depicted in greaves, the wearing of which was something like a symbol of their rank. Their greaves were decorated with chasing with the image of the head of Medusa in the knee part, the side surface was decorated with tufts of lightning and floral ornaments. On the contrary, ordinary soldiers were usually depicted without greaves at this time.

During the era of the Dacian Wars, greaves returned to military equipment to protect the legs of soldiers from the blows of the Dacian scythes. Although the soldiers in the reliefs of Trajan's Column do not wear greaves, they are present in the depictions of Trajan's Trophy at Adamclisi. Roman soldiers in reliefs wear one or two greaves. This detail of military equipment is also present in the sculptures and frescoes of a later period. Archaeological finds of leggings are simple iron plates 35 cm long, with a longitudinal stiffener, devoid of any decor. They cover the leg only up to the knee; perhaps a separate piece of armor was used to protect the knee itself. For fastening on the leg, the leggings are equipped with four pairs of rings through which a belt was passed.

Roman military ammunition and weapons were produced during the expansion of the empire in large quantities according to established patterns, and they were used depending on the category of troops. These standard models were called res militares. The constant improvement of the protective properties of armor and the quality of weapons, the regular practice of its use led the Roman Empire to military superiority and numerous victories.

The equipment gave the Romans a clear advantage over their enemies, especially in terms of the strength and quality of their "armor". This does not mean that the common soldier was better equipped than the wealthy among his opponents. According to Edward Luttwak, Combat vehicles was not best quality than that used by most opponents of the Empire, but the armor significantly reduced the number of deaths among the Romans on the battlefield.

Military features

Initially, the Romans produced weapons based on the experience and samples of Greek and Etruscan masters. They learned a lot from their opponents, for example, when faced with the Celts, they adopted some types of their equipment, they “borrowed” the helmet model from the Gauls, and the anatomical shell from the ancient Greeks to the thorax.

As soon as Roman armor and weapons were officially adopted by the state, they became the standard for almost the entire imperial world. The standard weapons and ammunition changed several times during the long Roman history, but they were never individual, although each soldier decorated his armor at his own discretion and "pocket". However, the evolution of the weapons and armor of the warriors of Rome was quite long and complex.

Pugio daggers

The Pugio was a dagger that was borrowed from the Spaniards and used as a weapon by the Roman soldiers. Like other items of equipment for legionnaires, it underwent some changes during the 1st century. It typically had a large, leaf-shaped blade, 18 to 28 cm long and 5 cm or more wide. The middle "vein" (groove) ran along the entire length of each side of its cutting part, or simply protruded only from the front. The main changes: the blade became thinner, approximately 3 mm, the handle was made of metal and inlaid with silver. A distinctive feature of the pugio was that it could be used both for stabbing and from top to bottom.

Story

Around 50 AD the rod version of the dagger was introduced. This in itself did not lead to significant changes in the appearance of the pugio, but some of the later blades were narrow (less than 3.5 cm wide), had little or no "waist", although they remained double-edged.

Throughout the entire period of their use as part of ammunition, the handles remained approximately the same. They were made either from two layers of horn, or a combination of wood and bone, or covered with a thin metal plate. Often the hilt was decorated with silver inlay. It was 10–12 cm long, but rather narrow. An extension or a small circle in the middle of the handle made the grip more secure.

gladius

It was customary to call any kind of sword this way, although in the days of the Roman Republic the term gladius Hispaniensis (Spanish sword) referred (and still refers) specifically to a medium-length weapon (60 cm-69 cm) that was used by Roman legionnaires from the 3rd century BC.

Several different models are known. Among collectors and historical reenactors, the two main types of swords are known as gladius (according to the places where they were found during excavations) - Mainz (short version with a blade length of 40-56 cm, a width of 8 cm and a weight of 1.6 kg) and Pompeii (length from 42 up to 55 cm, width 5 cm, weight 1 kg). More recent archaeological finds have confirmed the use of an earlier version of this weapon: the long sword used by the Celts and taken over by the Romans after the Battle of Cannae. Legionnaires wore their swords on their right thigh. According to the changes that have occurred with the gladius, one can trace the evolution of the weapons and armor of the warriors of Rome.

Spata

This was the name of any sword in late Latin (spatha), but most often one of the long variants characteristic of the middle era of the Roman Empire. In the 1st century, the Roman cavalry began to use longer double-edged swords (from 75 to 100 cm), and at the end of the 2nd or beginning of the 3rd century, the infantry also used them for a while, gradually moving to carrying spears.

gasta

It is a Latin word meaning "piercing spear". Gastas (in some versions of hasta) were in service with the Roman legionnaires, later these soldiers were called gastati. However, in Republican times, they were re-equipped with pilum and gladius, and only the triarii still used these spears.

They were about 1.8 meters (six feet) long. The shaft was usually made of wood, while the "head" was of iron, although early versions had bronze tips.

There were lighter and shorter spears, such as those used by the velites (rapid reaction troops) and the legions of the early days of the Republic.

Pilum

Pilum ( plural from pila) was a throwing heavy spear two meters long and consisted of a shaft from which an iron shank protruded about 7 mm in diameter and 60-100 cm long with a pyramidal head. The pilum usually weighed between two and four kilograms.

Spears were designed to pierce both shield and armor from a distance, but if they simply got stuck in them, they were difficult to remove. The iron tail bent on impact, weighing down the enemy shield and preventing immediate reuse pilum. With a very strong blow, the shaft could break, leaving the opponent with a curved shank in the shield.

Roman archers (sagittarii)

The archers were armed with compound bows (arcus) and shooting arrows (sagitta). This type of "long-range" weapon was made from horn, wood, and animal tendons held together with glue. As a rule, saggitaria (a kind of gladiators) took part exclusively in large-scale battles, when an additional massive blow to the enemy at a distance was required. This weapon was later used to train recruits on arcubus ligneis with wooden inserts. Reinforcing bars have been found in many excavations, even in the western provinces where wooden bows were traditional.

Hiroballista

Also known as the manuballista. She was a crossbow sometimes used by the Romans. Ancient world knew many variants of mechanical hand weapons, similar to the late medieval crossbow. The exact terminology is the subject of ongoing scholarly debate. Roman authors, such as Vegetius, repeatedly note the use small arms, for example, arcuballista and manuballista, respectively cheiroballista.

While most scholars agree that one or more of these terms refers to hand-held throwing weapons, there is disagreement as to whether these were recurve or mechanized bows.

The Roman commander Arrian (c. 86 - after 146) describes in his treatise on the Roman cavalry "Tactics" shooting from a mechanical hand weapon from a horse. Sculptural bas-reliefs in Roman Gaul depict the use of crossbows in hunting scenes. They are remarkably similar to the late medieval crossbow.

The infantrymen serving the chiroballista carried dozens of lead throwing darts called plumbatae (from plumbum, meaning "lead"), with an effective flight range of up to 30 m, much more than a spear. The darts were attached to the back of the shield.

digging tools

Ancient writers and politicians, including Julius Caesar, documented the use of shovels and other digging tools as important tools of war. The Roman legion, while on the march, dug a ditch and rampart around their camps every night. They were also useful as improvised weapons.

Armor

Not all troops wore reinforced Roman armor. Light infantry, especially in the early Republic, made little or no use of armor. This allowed both faster movement and cheaper equipment for the army.

Legionnaire soldiers of the 1st and 2nd centuries used Various types protection. Some wore chain mail, while others wore scaled Roman armor or a segmented lorica or metal plated cuirass.

This latter type was a sophisticated piece of armament that provided superior protection for mail (lorica hamata) and scale armor (lorica squamata) under certain circumstances. Modern tests with spears have shown that this species was impervious to most direct hits.

Unlined, however, was inconvenient: reenactors confirmed that wearing the linen, known as subarmalis, freed the wearer from bruising, both from long-term wear of the armor and from a blow inflicted by a weapon on the armor.

Auxilia

In the 3rd century, troops are depicted wearing Roman mail armor (mostly) or the standard 2nd century auxilia. The artistic account confirms that most of the soldiers of the late Empire wore metal armor, despite Vegetius' claims to the contrary. For example, illustrations in the treatise Notitia show that armorers were producing mail armor in the late 4th century. They also produced the armor of the gladiators of ancient Rome.

Roman armor lorica segmentata

It was an ancient type of body armor and was mainly used at the beginning of the Empire, but this Latin name was first used in the 16th century (the ancient form is unknown). Roman armor itself consisted of wide iron bands (hoops) attached to the back and chest with leather straps.

The stripes were arranged horizontally on the body, overlapping each other, they surrounded the body, fastened in front and behind with copper hooks that were connected with leather laces. The upper body and shoulders were protected by additional bands ("shoulder protectors") and chest and back plates.

The shape of the armor of a Roman legionary could be folded very compactly, as it was divided into four parts. It has been modified several times during its use: the currently recognized types are Kalkriese (c. 20 BC to 50 AD), Corbridge (c. 40 AD to 120) and Newstead (c. 120, possibly early 4th century).

There is a fourth type, known only from a statue found at Alba Giulia in Romania, where a "hybrid" variant appears to have existed, with the shoulders protected by scaly armor, while the torso hoops are smaller and deeper.

The earliest evidence of wearing the lorica segmanta dates from around 9 BC. e. (Dangstetten). The armor of the Roman legionary was used in service for quite a long time: until the 2nd century AD, judging by the number of finds from that period (more than 100 sites are known, many of them in Britain).

However, even in the 2nd century AD, the segmentata never replaced the hamata lorica, as it was still the standard uniform for both heavy infantry and cavalry. The last recorded use of this armor is from the end of the 3rd century AD (León, Spain).

There are two opinions as to who used this form of armor in Ancient Rome. One of them states that only legionnaires (heavy infantry of the Roman legions) and praetorians were issued lorica segmenta. Auxiliary forces more often wore lorica hamata or squamata.

The second view is that both legionnaires and auxiliary soldiers used the armor of the Roman warrior of the “segmentata” type, and this is to some extent confirmed by archaeological finds.

The segmentation of the lorica provided more protection than the hamata, but it was also more difficult to manufacture and repair. The expense involved in making the segments for this type of Roman armor may explain the return to plain mail after the 3rd or 4th century. At that time, the development trends military force changed. Alternatively, all forms of Roman warrior armor may have fallen into disuse as the need for heavy infantry diminished in favor of fast mounted troops.

Lorika hamata

It was one of the types of chain mail used in the Roman Republic and spread throughout the Empire as standard Roman armor and weapons for primary heavy infantry and secondary troops (auxilia). It was mainly made of iron, although sometimes bronze was used instead.

The rings were tied together, alternating closed elements in the form of washers with rivets. This gave a very flexible, reliable and durable armor. Each ring had an inner diameter of 5 to 7 mm and an outer diameter of 7 to 9 mm. On the shoulders of the hamata lorica were flaps similar to the shoulders of the Greek linothorax. They started from the middle of the back, went to the front of the body and were connected with copper or iron hooks that were attached to studs riveted through the ends of the flaps. Several thousand rings made up one lorika hamatu.

Although labor intensive to manufacture, it is believed that with good maintenance they could be used continuously for several decades. Such was the usefulness of the armor that the later appearance of the famous lorica segment, which provided greater protection, did not lead to the complete disappearance of the hamata.

Lorica squamata

Lorica squamata was a type of scale armor used during the Roman Republic and beyond. It was made from small metal scales sewn onto a fabric base. It was worn, and this can be seen in ancient images, by ordinary musicians, centurions, cavalry troops and even auxiliary infantry, but legionnaires could also wear it. The shirt of the armor was shaped in the same way as the lorica hamata: from the middle of the thigh with reinforced shoulders or equipped with a cape.

Individual scales were either iron or bronze or even alternating metals on the same shirt. The plates were not very thick: 0.5 to 0.8 mm (0.02 to 0.032 inches), which may have been the usual range. However, since the scales overlapped in all directions, multiple layers provided good protection.

Size ranged from 6 mm (0.25 in) wide to 1.2 cm high to 5 cm (2 in) wide and 8 cm (3 in) high, with the most common sizes being approximately 1.25 by 2.5 cm. Many had rounded bottoms, while others had pointed or flat bases with cut corners. The plates could be flat, slightly convex, or have a raised middle web or edge. All of them on the shirt were basically the same size, however, the scales from different chain mail varied significantly.

They were connected in horizontal rows, which were then sewn to the backing. Thus, each of them had from four to 12 holes: two or more on each side for attachment to the next in a row, one or two at the top for attachment to the substrate, and sometimes at the bottom for attachment to the base or to each other.

The shirt could be opened either at the back or at the bottom on one side to make it easier to put on, and the opening was pulled together with drawstrings. Much has been written about the alleged vulnerability of this ancient Roman armor.

No specimens of complete squamata scaled lorica have been found, but there have been a few archaeological finds of fragments of such shirts. The original Roman armor is quite expensive and only extremely wealthy collectors can afford it.

Parma

It was a round shield with three Roman feet across. It was smaller than most shields, but solidly built and considered an effective defense. This was provided by the use of iron in its structure. He had a handle and shield (umbo). Finds of Roman armor are often recovered from the ground complete with these shields.

Parma was used in the Roman army by units of the lower class: velites. Their equipment consisted of a shield, a dart, a sword and a helmet. Parma was later replaced by scutum.

Roman helmets

The galea or cassis varied greatly in form. One of the early types was the Montefortino bronze helmet (cup-shaped with a back visor and side shields) used by the armies of the Republic until the 1st century AD.

It was replaced by Gallic counterparts (they were called "imperial"), which provide protection to the soldier's head on both sides.

Today, craftsmen who create the armor of Roman legionnaires with their own hands are very fond of making them.

Baldrick

In another way, a baldrick, bowdrick, bauldrick, and other rare or obsolete pronunciations is a belt worn on one shoulder, which is usually used to carry a weapon (usually a sword) or another tool, such as a bugle or drum. The word can also refer to any belt in general, but its use in this context is perceived as poetic or archaic. These belts were a mandatory attribute of the armor of the Roman Empire.

Application

Baldriks have been used since ancient times as part of military clothing. Without exception, all warriors wore belts with their Roman armor (there are some photos in this article). The design provided more weight support than a standard waist belt without restricting arm movement and allowing easy access to the item being carried.

In more recent times, for example, in the British army of the late 18th century, a pair of white baldriks crossed at the chest was used. Alternatively, especially in modern times, it may serve a ceremonial role rather than a practical one.

Baltey

In ancient Roman times, a balteus (or balteus) was a type of baldrik commonly used to hang a sword. It was a belt that was worn over the shoulder and passed obliquely down to the side, usually made of leather, often decorated with precious stones, metals, or both.

There was also a similar belt worn by the Romans, especially by soldiers, and called a sintu, which was fastened around the waist. It was also an attribute of Roman anatomical armor.

Many non-military or paramilitary organizations include balteas as part of their dress code. The Colored Corps of the Knights of Columbus 4th Class uses it as part of their uniform. Balteus supports a ceremonial (decorative) sword. The photo of the armor of the Roman legionnaires, along with the Baltei, the reader can see in this article.

Roman belt

Cingulum Militaryare is a piece of ancient Roman military equipment in the form of a belt decorated with metal fittings worn by soldiers and officials as a rank rank. Many examples have been found in the Roman province of Pannonia.

Kaligi

Kaligi were heavy boots with thick soles. Caliga comes from the Latin callus, meaning "hard". So named because hobnails (nails) were hammered into leather soles before being sewn onto a softer leather lining.

They were worn by the lower ranks of the Roman cavalry and infantry, and possibly by some centurions. Strong connection kalig with ordinary soldiers is obvious, since the latter were called kaligati ("loaded"). At the beginning of the first century AD, two or three-year-old Gaius was nicknamed "Caligula" ("little shoe") by soldiers because he wore miniature soldier's clothing complete with viburnums.

They were stronger than closed shoes. In the Mediterranean, this could be an advantage. In cold and humid climate northern Britain, additional woven socks or wool in winter might have helped to insulate the feet, but the caligae were replaced there towards the end of the second century AD by the more practical civil-style "closed boots" (carbatinae).

By the end of the 4th century, they began to be used throughout the Empire. The emperor Diocletian's edict on prices (301) includes a fixed price on carbatinae without inscriptions, made for civilian men, women and children.

The sole of the caliga and the openwork upper part were cut from a single piece of high-quality cow or bull hide. The lower part was attached to the midsole with latches, usually iron but sometimes bronze.

The pinned ends were covered with an insole. Like all Roman shoes, the caliga was flat-soled. It was laced up the center of the foot and at the top of the ankle. Isidore of Seville believed that the name "caliga" comes from the Latin "callus" ("hard skin"), or from the fact that the boot was laced or tied (ligere).

Shoe styles varied from manufacturer to manufacturer and region to region. The placement of the nails in it is less variable: they functioned to provide support to the foot, much like modern athletic shoes do. At least one provincial manufacturer of combat boots has been identified by name.

Pteruga

These are strong skirts made of leather or multi-layered fabric (linen), and with stripes or lappets sewn on them, worn around the waist by Roman and Greek soldiers. Also, in a similar way, they had stripes sewn on their shirts, similar to epaulettes, protecting their shoulders. Both sets are usually interpreted as belonging to the same garment worn under the cuirass, although in the linen version (linothorax) they may have been non-removable.

The cuirass itself can be built in different ways: lamellar bronze, linothorax, scaled, lamellar or chain mail. The overlays can be arranged in the form of one row of longer strips or two layers of short, overlapping blades of graduated length.

During the Middle Ages, especially in Byzantium and the Middle East, such stripes were used on the back and sides of helmets to protect the neck while leaving it free enough to move. However, no archaeological remains of leather protective helmets have been found. Artistic representations of such elements can also be interpreted as vertically stitched quilted textile protective coverings.

The appearance of the first armor occurred long before the advent of war and military affairs. Armor is often associated with metal, but leather and cloth were much more common materials. Stone Age people first learned how to make simple armor from animal skins, which became the prototype of the first leather and fabric armor. Animal skins protected people not only from the cold, but also from the sharp claws and teeth of predators who attacked during the hunt. Of course, such armor could not save the hunter from serious wounds, but people learned to sew durable clothes from animal skin that covered the entire body. With the advent of the first melee weapon - a sharp knife, dagger, battle ax, and ranged weapons - throwing spears, arrows with metal tips, it was necessary to take care of more reliable protection of the warrior. First of all, the warrior needed a reliable helmet, shield, chest leather armor.

Ancient warriors of the Crete-Mycenaean civilization

The period of the first civilizations marked the beginning of the era of wars between new states, an army appeared and weapons were improved.
In ancient times warriors of the Minoan civilization of Crete wore bone horned helmets, were armed with spears and shields. Bronze double-edged short swords of this period had thin blade about 80 cm long, around the 9th century BC for the manufacture of swords began to use iron, the blade began to be made wider and shorter.

People learned to process not only fabric, skin and bones of animals, but also metal, in the Bronze Age it became possible to create military armor that gives the warrior real protection. Leather armor, as well as fabric armor, were considered light armor, but they were not abandoned even in the era of heavy knightly armor. They learned to process metal a very long time ago, but truly strong and heavy armor appeared only in the late Middle Ages.

Ancient Hellas, the successor of the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization , in many ways improved the methods of war and military weapons. The duty of a citizen of any free ancient Greek policy was to carry military service, they had to take care of their weapons themselves.

Ancient Greek hoplite warriors (ancient Greek ὁπλίτης) were heavy infantry armed with heavy (about 8 kg.) round "Argive" shields - hoplon (ancient Greek ὅπλον), who protected the warrior from the neck to the knees. The first hoplite warriors appeared in the Spartan army. Hoplites during the war, citizens with average incomes became, they could provide themselves with weapons and equipment at their own expense. The best armies of the Greek policies consisted of wealthy citizens, heavily armed hoplite infantrymen, united in phalanxes.

Light infantry in ancient Greece was called – peltasts (other Greek πελταστής), who were the skirmishers of the battle, they threw darts at the enemy. Peltasty were called by the name of the shield - pelta (ancient Greek πελτα) - a light leather shield used by the Thracian infantry-velites (peltasts), having the shape of a crescent. A shield-pelta was made from light wood, or wickerwork from reeds, vines.

Sling - throwing edged weapons used by the slingers of Assyria, Persia, Greece, Rome and Carthage. The sling consisted of a rope or belt, with a loop at the end where the slinger's brush was threaded. In the center of the sling, a stone or metal projectile was inserted.

Lead sling bullets with the inscription - "Catch". 4th century BC

The slinger rotated the sling with the projectile in a horizontal or vertical plane, intensifying circular movements, and at the moment of the strongest swing released the free end of the sling and the projectile at high speed flew out of the sling. Although the bow was a more accurate weapon, slingers with metal projectiles were valued more than archers, since projectile lead bullets retained more destructive power.

Xiphos (other Greek ξίφος) a straight double-edged short sword with a leaf-shaped blade about 60 cm long. Borrowed by the Hellenes from the Scythians. The Scythian way of burial was borrowed by the Greeks. (McPherson's Antiquities of Kertch, 1857)

Scythian warriors.

In the Northern Black Sea region before the arrival of the ancient Greeks there lived many tribes related in language, religion, culture, having a common style of fine art, which modern art historians call the "animal style". The ancient Greeks who founded on the shores (Black Sea) colonies, collided with local tribes and did not distinguish at all the features of these tribes, and therefore, all strangers who did not speak Greek and lived outside of Greece, they called barbarians. The Greeks called the nomads and tillers of the Northern Black Sea region Scythians, and their vast territories of residence - Scythia.

The name "Scythian" comes from the Greek oh words "xiphos" - ξιφωζ - thorn as the Greeks called it short scythian sword 60 cm long.- a formidable Scythian weapon in hand-to-hand combat. Scythian blade, short sword, the Scythians called akinak, and in Greek blade -σπαθί - "save".

Scythian warriors were armed with powerful a new type of bow , made of several layers of wood and tendons. Scythian bow was much more powerful than a regular wooden bow, as the different layers of wood increased the power and impact force fired from bow of a Scythian arrow with a trihedral tip.

In equestrian combat, the Scythians used squads of archers who fired hundreds of deadly arrows at the same time for several minutes. At the end of the 6th century A.D. e. Byzantine writer described the deadly power of the mounted Scythian archers, who did not stop fighting until the enemy was completely destroyed.

The weapon of the Scythians, who fought on foot, was a battle ax with a narrow long sharp blade - an ax (labrys). In hand-to-hand combat, the Scythian foot soldiers fought as bravely and fiercely as the Scythian riders.

Despite the fact that in these times the processing of bronze reached a very high level, bronze armor was not as popular as cloth, they cost a lot of money.

Into the armor Scythian warrior included a shield with armored coating. The width of the Scythian shield is 93 cm, in the lower part (in the middle) it is divided by a cutout 17 cm long, 10 cm wide. Such a shield was very convenient for the rider end of the 5th - beginning of the 4th centuries. BC.

Scythian rounded helmet with a small cone on the crown, the prototype of the ancient Russian helmet.

Scythian armor represents sleeveless leather shirt fastening on the right beck (kosovorotka). The front part of the armor is tailored so that the shoulder parts, separated by the neckline, go forward in the form long stripes-shoulders with a plate set. The shoulders covered not only the shoulder, but also the forearm, they were attached to the back of the armor with the help of iron laces and laces. The iron plates of the set are sewn onto the leather base in horizontal rows from bottom to top. in such a way that the right edge of each plate moved over the left edge of the adjacent one, resulting in a continuous coating that did not give clearance when the base was stretched at the kinks. The armor left room for body movements, providing the warrior with the maximum possible mobility. The front of the armor reaches only to the waist, that is, it is cut out for the rider. In the lower part of the hem of the armor there are two burrs, to which they were attached with the help of laces. pants that served as legguards and leggings (length 60 cm, width 30 cm), the pants were rectangular pieces of leather with a lamellar set. They were wrapped around the legs and connected from the inside. There was no plate set in the knee area, for the convenience of controlling the horse.

Ancient Greek warriors.

In addition to the shield the Greek hoplite wore a helmet, Two types of ancient Greek helmets are known. Corinthian helmet fully closed with cutouts for eyes and mouth, has a T-shape. The helmet was often decorated with a short horse mane.

Illyrian helmet did not cover the face of the warrior, and did not have protection for the nose, the ears of the warrior were also open, the warrior received best review, and this made it easier and more convenient than Corinthian. Subsequently, the Corinthian helmet changed and became more similar to the Illyrian one.

Linnothorax - combat armor made of several layers of dense fabric, most often used by hoplites, as well as light infantry and cavalry. Linnothorax did not hamper the movement of a warrior, relying in battle on his strength, agility and speed of movement. Bronze armor was called hippothorax , they repeated the anatomical pattern of the muscles. Ancient warriors wore bracers and greaves, protecting arms and legs from injury. Scaled armor did not gain a foothold in the ancient Greek army, apparently due to their heaviness, which hindered the movement of the war and a very hot climate, because of the heat, the metal of the armor was heated.

In ancient Egypt due to the unbearable heat and the high cost of making even cloth armor, ordinary soldiers almost never wore armor. The Egyptians used a shield and wore traditional Egyptian wigs, which were made of hard leather and adorned with bone or bronze pieces. A helmet and skillful possession of a shield softened the blow of an ax, mace or club. Bronze axes and swords were the weapons of wealthy warriors and military leaders, ordinary soldiers were armed with a shield, a spear and a short blade. For many years of excavations in Egypt, almost not a single metal shell was found, which indicates the high cost of its production and, possibly, low efficiency. The Egyptian army, and many armies of the ancient era, had cavalry and chariots. All noble, well-trained warriors fought by archery and moving in a chariot acting as mobile cavalry. The accuracy of archery during the fast movement of the chariot required considerable skill, such noble warriors on chariots were valued and they wore cloth or leather armor.

Roman army is a kind of continuation and development of the ideas of the phalanx. At this time, the Iron Age begins. Combat armor made of bronze and fabric is replaced by iron, Roman legionaries are armed with short swords, helmets and massive shields that allow them to come close to the enemy, strike and break the formation. In the Iron Age, the sword becomes more durable and longer, there is a need for armor that could effectively stop slashing blows. The spear was the weapon of the hoplite and many armies of this time.

So the heavy armor of the hoplite is replaced chain mail – Lorica hamata. Mail is not very effective against a spear, but can stop a slashing blow from a sword or axe. Legions often fought tribes that were out of order , many barbarians from the north were armed with axes, a reliable shield was needed to protect against slashing weapons.

Large growth (tower) ancient Roman shield with a central handle and umbon, called scutum (lat. scutum), was common in Italy in the Bronze Age. Roman shield had only one horizontal handle in the center.

SCUTUM - is the predecessor of the oval shieldauxilium *, which began to supplant the scutum from about the 2nd century. Auxilium (Latin auxilia) - auxiliary unit of the ancient Roman army, recruited from foreigners.

scutum among the Etruscans. In Etruria , near Vetulonia, in one of the graves of the necropolis of Poggio alla Tuardia, VIII century BC. e., a sculptural image of a shield-scutum was found. Around the beginning of the 4th century BC. e. began to be used by Roman legionnaires instead of the Argive hoplite shield
Later, from the Romans, this type of shield was adopted by the Celts, Iberians and Illyrians.

A loss shield For Roman a warrior was considered a shame no less than the loss of a sword.

The Roman scutum from the time of the Republic measured about 75 cm wide, about 120 cm high, and weight 8-10 kg. According to Polybius, it was made from two wooden boards, first covered with coarse cloth, and then with calfskin. The Roman Scutum was found in the Fayum oasis, the height of the shield is 128 cm, the width is 63.5 cm, made of birch boards.

During the battle, the Roman soldiers held the shield along the left side and pressed the enemy, leaning on the shield with their shoulders and helping themselves with a short sword.

Later scutums decreased in width, but somewhat lengthened, which made it possible to almost completely close the shield from the enemy.

The ancient Roman shield-scutum served as a reliable defense for the legionnaires, and in combination with combat tactics, the scutums created an impenetrable wall that reliably protected the Roman soldiers, the enemy could not break through the Roman system.

Regular army of ancient Rome

Ancient Roman army (lat. exercitus, formerly - classis) - regular army Ancient Rome, one of the main elements of Roman society and the state, a decisive factor in the formation of the power of the ancient Roman state.

During the heyday of ancient Rome, the total number of the army was usually up to 100 thousand people, but could increase to 250-300 thousand people. and more. The Roman army had the best weapons for its time, experienced and well-trained command personnel, was distinguished by strict discipline and high military art of commanders who used the most advanced methods of warfare, achieving the complete defeat of the enemy.

Infantry - the main branch of the armies of Ancient Rome

The main arm of the army was the infantry. The fleet ensured the actions of the ground forces in coastal areas and the transfer of armies to enemy territory by sea. Military engineering, field camps, the ability to make quick transitions over long distances, the art of siege and defense of fortresses received significant development.

The main unit of the army of ancient Rome is the legion.

The main organizational and tactical unit of the army was the legion. From the second half of the 4th century BC. e. the legion consisted of 10 maniples (infantry) and 10 turmas (cavalry), from the first half of the 3rd century BC. e. - out of 30 maniples (each of which was divided into two centuries) and 10 turmas. All this time, its number remained unchanged - 4.5 thousand people, including 300 horsemen. The tactical dismemberment of the legion ensured high maneuverability of troops on the battlefield. From 107 B.C. e. in connection with the transition from a militia to a professional mercenary army, the legion began to be divided into 10 cohorts (each of which united three maniples). The legion also included wall and throwing vehicles and a convoy. In the 1st century A.D. e. the number of the legion reached approx. 7 thousand people (including approx. 800 horsemen).

Organizational structure of the army of ancient Rome

Almost in all periods existed simultaneously:
contubernia - 8-10 people;
centuria - 80-100 people;
maniple - 120-200 people;
cohort - ok. 960 people in the first and 480 in the rest.

Under the concept of signum, either maniples or centuries were understood.
Auxiliary troops were divided into cohorts and alas (in the Late Empire they are replaced by wedges - cunei). Irregular troops (numeri) did not have a clear numerical strength, as they corresponded with the traditional preferences of the peoples who made them up, for example mauri (Moors). Vexillations were called separate detachments that stood out from any unit, such as a legion. So vexillation could be sent to help another unit or to build a bridge.

Armament

Under Servius Tullia:
1st class: offensive - gladius, gasta and darts (tela), protective - helmet (galea), shell (lorica), bronze shield (clipeus) and leggings (ocrea);
2nd class - the same, without shell and scutum instead of clipeus;
3rd class - the same, without leggings;
4th class - gasta and peak (verutum).
After Scipio's reform:
offensive - spanish sword (gladius hispaniensis)
After the reform Mary:
offensive - pilum (special throwing spear);
protective - iron chain mail (lorica hamata).
Under Augustus:
offensive - dagger (pugio).
At the beginning of the Empire:
protective - Lorica Segmentata shell (Lorica Segmentata), segmented lorica late plate armor from individual steel segments. Comes into use from the 1st c. The origin of the plate cuirass is not entirely clear. Perhaps it was borrowed by the legionnaires from the armament of the gladiators-croupellari who participated in the rebellion of Flor Sacrovir in Germany (21). Chain mail (lorica hamata) also appears during this period—83.234.14.245 03:32, January 25, 2013 (UTC) with double mail coverage on the shoulders, especially popular with cavalrymen. Lightweight (up to 5-6 kg) and shorter chain mail are also used in auxiliary infantry units.

From the middle of the 1st century:
offensive - "Pompeian" sword, weighted pilums.
Starting from the North:
protective - scaly armor (lorica squamata)

A uniform

In I-II centuries:
paenula (a short woolen dark cloak with a hood).
From the 3rd century:
tunic with long sleeves, sagum (sagum) - a cloak without a hood, previously incorrectly considered a classic Roman military.

build

Manipulative tactics

It is practically generally accepted that during the period of their rule, the Etruscans introduced the phalanx among the Romans, and subsequently the Romans deliberately changed their weapons and formation. This opinion is based on reports that the Romans once used round shields and built a phalanx like the Macedonian, however, in the descriptions of the battles of the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. the dominant role of the cavalry and the auxiliary role of the infantry are clearly visible - the first was often even located and acted ahead of the infantry.
Roughly since the Latin War or earlier, the Romans began to adopt manipulative tactics. According to Livy and Polybius, it was carried out in a three-line formation at intervals (hastati, principes and triarii in the rear reserve), with the maniples of the principles standing against the intervals between the maniples of the hastati.

The legions were located next to each other, although in some battles of the Second Punic War they stood one behind the other.
To fill the too widened intervals when moving over rough terrain, a second line served, individual detachments of which could move into the first line, and if this was not enough, a third line was used. In a collision with the enemy, the small remaining intervals were filled by themselves, due to the freer location of the soldiers for the convenience of using weapons. The use of the second and third lines to bypass the enemy flanks, the Romans began to use at the end of the Second Punic War.

The opinion that the Romans threw pilums during the attack, after which they switched to swords and changed the lines of battle formation during the battle, was refuted by Delbrück, who showed that it was impossible to change lines during close combat with swords. This was explained by the fact that for a quick and organized retreat of the hastati behind the principles, the maniples should be placed at intervals equal to the width of the front of an individual maniple. At the same time, it would be extremely dangerous to engage in hand-to-hand combat with such intervals in the line, since this would allow the enemy to cover the maniples of the hastati from the flanks, which would lead to an early defeat of the first line. According to Delbrück, in reality, the line was not changed in battle - the intervals between the maniples were small and served only to facilitate maneuvering. However, at the same time, most of the infantry was intended only for plugging gaps in the first line. Later, relying in particular on Caesar's Notes on the Gallic War, the opposite was again proven, although it was recognized that it was not well-coordinated maneuvers of slender units.
On the other hand, even the hastati maniple covered from all sides could not be quickly destroyed, and kept the enemy in place, simply surrounding itself with shields from all sides (the huge shield of the legionnaires, absolutely unsuitable for individual combat, reliably protected it in the ranks and the legionnaire was vulnerable only for piercing blows from above, or for a retaliatory strike), and the enemy who penetrated through the gaps could simply be thrown with darts (tela) of the principles (which apparently were attached to the inside of the shield in the amount of seven pieces), independently climbing into the fire bag and not having no protection from flanking fire. The change of lines could represent a retreat of the hastati during a throwing battle, or a simple advance of the principles forward, with the hastati remaining in place. But the breakthrough of a continuous front, followed by confusion and the massacre of defenseless heavy infantry (English) Russian, who had lost their formation, was much more dangerous and could lead to a general flight (the surrounded maniple simply had nowhere to run).

Cohort tactics

Since about the 80s. BC e. cohort tactics began to be used. The reason for the introduction of a new formation was the need to effectively resist the massive frontal onslaught, used by the union of the Celtic-Germanic tribes. The new tactic supposedly found its first application in the Allied War of 91? 88 BC e. By the time of Caesar, cohort tactics were commonplace.
The cohorts themselves were built in a checkerboard pattern (quincunx), on the battlefield they could be used in particular:
triplex acies - 3 lines of four cohorts in the 1st and three in the 2nd and 3rd at a distance of 150-200 feet (45-65 meters) from each other;
duplex acies - 2 lines, 5 cohorts each;
simplex acies - 1 line from 10 cohorts.

Quincunx

3 cohorts of 360 people. in non-deployed formation with gaps
On the march, usually on enemy territory, they were built in four parallel columns in order to make it easier to rebuild in triplex acies on an alarm signal, or they formed the so-called orbis ("circle"), which facilitated the retreat under intense fire.
Under Caesar, each legion posted 4 cohorts in the first line, and 3 in the second and third. When the cohorts stood in close formation, the distance separating one cohort from another was equal to the length of the cohort along the front. This gap was destroyed as soon as the ranks of the cohort were deployed for battle. Then the cohort stretched along the front almost twice as compared with the usual system.
The interaction of cohorts, due to the larger size of a separate detachment and the simplification of maneuvering, did not place such high demands on the individual training of each legionnaire.

Evocati

Soldiers who served their term and were demobilized, but re-enlisted in the military on a voluntary basis, in particular on the initiative of, for example, the consul, were called evocati - letters. “newly called” (under Domitian, this was the name given to the elite guards of the equestrian class guarding his sleeping quarters; presumably, such guards retained their name under some subsequent emperors, cf. Gigin’s evocati Augusti). Usually they were listed in almost every unit, and apparently, if the commander was popular enough among the soldiers, the number of veterans of this category in his army could increase. Along with vexillarii, evocati were exempted from a number of military duties - fortifying the camp, laying roads, etc., and were higher in rank than ordinary legionnaires, sometimes compared with horsemen, or even were candidates for centurions. For example, Gnaeus Pompey promised to promote his former evocati to centurions after completion civil war, however, in the aggregate, all evocati could not be promoted to this rank. The entire evocati contingent was usually commanded by a separate prefect (praefectus evocatorum).