The story and word genres of ancient Russian literature. Presentation on the topic "Old Russian literature. Origin, features, genres." main genres of ancient Russian literature

Development Features ancient Russian literature.

Ancient literature is filled with deep patriotic content, heroic pathos of service to the Russian land, state, and homeland.

The main theme of ancient Russian literature is world history and the meaning of human life.

Ancient literature glorifies the moral beauty of the Russian man, who is capable of sacrificing the most precious thing for the sake of the common good - life. It expresses a deep belief in strength, the ultimate triumph of good, and the ability of man to elevate his spirit and conquer evil.

characteristic feature Old Russian literature is historicism. The heroes are mostly historical figures. The literature strictly follows the fact.

feature artistic creativity ancient Russian writer is the so-called "literary etiquette". This is a special literary and aesthetic regulation, the desire to subordinate the very image of the world to certain principles and rules, to establish once and for all what should be depicted and how.

Old Russian literature appears with the emergence of the state, writing, and is based on Christian book culture and developed forms of oral poetry. At this time, literature and folklore were closely connected. Literature often perceived plots, artistic images, figurative means folk art.

The originality of ancient Russian literature in the image of the hero depends on the style and genre of the work. In relation to styles and genres, the hero is reproduced in the monuments of ancient literature, ideals are formed and created.

In ancient Russian literature, a system of genres was defined, within which the development of original Russian literature began. The main thing in their definition was "use", "practical purpose", for which this or that work was intended.

The traditions of Old Russian literature are found in the work of Russian writers of the 18th-20th centuries.

main genres of ancient Russian literature

The first works of original ancient Russian literature that have come down to us date back to the middle of the 11th century. Their creation is due to the growth of the political, patriotic consciousness of the early feudal society, seeking to strengthen new forms of statehood, to assert the sovereignty of the Russian land. Substantiating the ideas of the political and religious independence of Rus', literature seeks to consolidate new forms of Christian ethics, the authority of secular and spiritual power, to show the inviolability, "eternity" of feudal relations, the norms of law and order.

The main genres of literature of this time are historical: tradition, legend, story - and religious and didactic: solemn words, teachings, lives, walks. Historical genres, relying in their development on the corresponding genres of folklore, develop specific book forms of narration "based on the epics of this time." The leading genre is the historical story, based on a reliable depiction of events. Depending on the nature of the events reflected in the stories, they can be "military", stories about princely crimes, etc. Each type of historical story acquires its own specific stylistic features. The central hero of historical stories and legends is the warrior prince, the defender of the country's borders, the builder of temples, the zealot of enlightenment, the righteous judge of his subjects.

Its antipode is a seditious prince who violates the feudal legal order of subordinating the trade wind to his overlord, the eldest in the family, leading bloody internecine warriors, striving to gain power for himself by force. The story of the good and evil deeds of the princes is based on the testimonies of eyewitnesses, participants in the events, oral traditions that existed in the squad environment. Historical incursions and legends do not allow fiction modern meaning this word. The facts stated and them are documented, attached to the exact dates, correlated with other events. The historical genres of ancient Russian literature, as a rule, exist not separately, but as part of chronicles, where the principle of weather presentation made it impossible to include various material in it: a weather record, a legend, a story. These historical genres were devoted to the most important events related to military campaigns, the struggle against the external enemies of Rus', the construction activities of the prince, strife, unusual natural phenomena, heavenly signs. At the same time, the chronicle also included a church legend, elements of hagiography, and even entire hagiographies, legal documents.

One of the greatest historical and literary monuments of the second half of the 11th - early 12th centuries that has come down to us is The Tale of Bygone Years.

3. Old Russian literature of the 11th century (The Tale of Bygone Years, The Tale of Igor's Campaign, The Life of Theodosius of Pechora, The Tale of Peter and Fevronia)

"The Tale of Bygone Years" is an outstanding historical and literary monument, reflecting the formation of the ancient Russian state, its political and cultural flourishing, as well as the beginning of the process of feudal fragmentation. Created in the first decades of the 12th century, the story has come down to us as part of the chronicles of a later time. "The Tale of Bygone Years" contains 2 main ideas: the idea of ​​the independence of Rus' and its equality with other countries (in the description of hostilities) and the idea of ​​the unity of Rus', the Russian princely family, the need for a union of princes and the condemnation of strife ("Legend of calling the Varangians"). The work highlights several main themes: the theme of the unification of cities, the theme military history Rus', the theme of the peaceful activities of the princes, the theme of the history of the adoption of Christianity, the theme of urban uprisings. In terms of composition, this is a very interesting work. It breaks up into 2 parts: up to 850 - conditional chronology, and then - weather. There were also such articles where the year stood, but there was no record. This meant that nothing significant happened that year, and the chronicler did not consider it necessary to write it down. Under one year there could be several major narratives. The chronicle includes symbols: visions, miracles, signs, as well as messages, teachings. The first, dated 852, was associated with the beginning of the Russian land. Under 862 there was a legend about the calling of the Varangians, the establishment of a single ancestor of the Russian princes Rurik. The next turning point in the annals is connected with the baptism of Rus' in 988. The final articles tell about the reign of Svyatopolk Izyaslavich. Also, the compositional originality of The Tale of Bygone Years is manifested in the combination of many genres in this work. Partly because of this, messages of different content were sometimes placed under one year. The chronicle was a collection of primary genre formations. Here we find both a weather record, the simplest and most ancient form of narration, and an annalistic story, annalistic tales. The proximity of the chronicle to hagiographic literature is found in the stories about 2 Varangian martyrs, about the foundation of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery and its ascetics, about the transfer of the relics of Boris and Gleb, about the death of Theodosius of the Caves. Obituary articles were associated with the genre of grave words of praise in the annals, which often contained verbal portraits of deceased historical figures, for example, a description of the Tmutarakan prince Rostislav, who was poisoned during a feast by a Byzantine warrior. Symbolic landscape sketches. Unusual natural phenomena are interpreted by the chronicler as "signs" - warnings from above about impending death or glory. In the bowels of the Tale of Bygone Years, a military tale begins to take shape. Elements of this genre are already present in the story of Yaroslav's revenge on Svyatopolk the Accursed. The chronicler describes the gathering of troops and the march, preparations for battle, the "slash of evil" and the flight of Svyatopolk. Also, the features of the military story can be traced in "The Tale of the Capture of Tsaryrad by Oleg", in the story "About the Battle of Yaroslav with Mstislav".

Characteristics of the genre of life. The originality of the "Life of Theodosius of the Caves" as a literary monument.

Life is a genre that tells about the life of a real historical person, canonized after death. Russian hagiographies developed on the basis of Byzantine ones. The genre took shape in the first centuries of Christianity and was supposed to serve as an illustration of the Christian commandments. In the first lives, many miracles repeated the miracles of Christ. They were artless in form, but their complication is gradually going on. Signs of life: idealization (ideal saints, ideal evil); according to the composition - strict adherence to the canons (introduction - many topoi, self-abasement of the author, turning to God for help; central narrative - a story or mention of parents; a story about the hero's childhood; a story about his life and exploits; a story about death and posthumous miracles; conclusion - praise or prayer to the saint); the narrator is always an educated and well-read person, distancing himself from the hero, giving information about himself, clearly expressing his position in relation to the hero with the help of biblical quotations; the language is Church Slavonic and lively colloquial, extensive use of tropes and biblical quotations. "The Life of Theodosius of the Caves" was written by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nestor. Following the genre canon, the author saturates the life with traditional images and motifs. In the introduction, he self-deprecates, in the stories about his childhood Theodosius speaks of his spirituality, speaks of posthumous miracles. But Nestor violates one of the main genre rules - to portray -> the saint outside the specific signs of time and people. The author seeks to convey the color of the era, which turns the work into a source of valuable historical information. From it we learn which charter regulated life in Kiev-Pechersk Lavra how the monastery grew and grew rich, interfered in the struggle of the princes for the Kiev table, contributed to the development of book business in Rus'. The main part of the life sometimes resembles the "hagiographic chronicle" of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, because. includes stories about spiritual mentors, associates and disciples of Theodosius. In addition to the monastic life of Theodosius, his participation in the political life of Rus' is shown, which also increases the value of the "Life" as a literary monument.

"Life" laid the foundation for the development in Russian literature of the genre of venerable life.

The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom.

It was created in the middle of the 16th century (but for a long time it was attributed to the 15th century) by the priest and publicist Yermolai-Erasmus. In theory, this work was created as a life. But he was not recognized as a life because of the numerous deviations from the canon in the central part, and in the process of processing it became a story. The basis of its plot was formed on the basis of 2 oral-poetic, fairy-tale motifs - about the hero-serpent fighter and the wise maiden, which are widespread in folklore. The source of the plot was a local legend about a wise peasant girl who became a princess. Folk tradition had a strong influence on Yermolai-Erasmus, and he created a work that was not connected with the canons of the hagiographic genre: this is a fascinating plot narrative that bears little resemblance to the lives of the saints with their exploits and martyrdom for the glory of the church. "The work consists of 4 parts, plot-related to each other. 1-story about a snake fighter. 2-heroes go for a doctor for a victim of a snake. They meet a girl who speaks in riddles. This is followed by a motif of riddles and trials. 3-life of Peter and Fevronia is married, there are elements of folklore narration.4-story about the death of Peter and Fevronia and the posthumous miracle.The problem of the genre is that many elements of different genres are connected together in the work.The work does not say anything about the childhood of the heroes (untraditional for life) , folklore motifs can be traced in all parts.For example, a fairy tale story about a hero-zmeborets, a motif of riddles, when Fevronia says that "it is not absurd to be a home without ears and a temple without ochsho" (dog-ears at home, child-eyes at home) and to the question where her family answers: "Father and mother borrow posters. My brother goes through the legs in the navi vision," which means "mother and father went to the funeral, and the brother-beautician." There is also a folklore motif in 3 -her part, when Fevronya, after a meal, collects crumbs in her hand, and then they turn into incense and incense. This is an echo of the fairy tale about the frog princess, when the leftovers turned into swans and a lake. And the departure of Peter and Fevronia from Murom, and then the request of the nobles for their return, also has an echo in folk tale. But in the work there is also a spiritual side, characteristic of the lives. Peter and Fevronia do not talk about love, because Peter does not even want to marry her at first. Their marriage is not carnal, but spiritual and is based on keeping the commandments. Fevronia performs miracles thanks to her spirituality. Another element of life is a posthumous miracle, when Peter and Fevronia, contrary to their dying instructions, are buried in different places, and they still end up together in a coffin for two during the night, which remained empty. And their death in one hour is also something unusual, which can only be characteristic of saints. The combination of folklore, life and elements of the story in one work makes the work multifaceted, but this is a special skill of the author and innovation in literature.

Old Russian literature of the 17th century (The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, The Tale of Frol Skobeev,

Life of Archpriest Avvakum-Monument of the 17th century. Written in the transitional period - from Old Russian to new literature. Life reflects this. The archpriest did not perceive himself as a writer. He was forced to turn to the pen, as he was deprived of the possibility of oral communication with people. Lots of letters.

"The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, written by himself" - 1670. The name refers to the hagiographic tradition, but then the tradition collapses. I couldn't write my own life. Not only was he never canonized, but he was even excommunicated as the head of schismatics who did not accept church reforms Patriarch Nikon in the middle of the 17th century. Old Believer Movement.

Nikon reforms: two-finger was replaced with three-finger. Earthly bows - waist. And that the icons were rewritten according to the Greek model. The reforms concerned only the external rite, but for the believer, all the elements of the rite have great internal significance.

The archpriest was imprisoned in an earthen pit and burned at the stake. Nothing broke him - faith remained. In an earthen prison, he wrote his life.

It meets many requirements literary etiquette of the genre of life:

introduction (unworthy me, etc.)

the narrative part

· final part

· Habakkuk often quotes scriptures.

But all the elements take on a different quality: in the introduction, he talks about his principles as a scribe (aesthetic views). “I will write in my native language,” that is, as he says, without specially embellishing, although hagiographic works were always written solemnly. The parents are not depicted canonically: the father is a drunkard, the mother is pious, she became a nun.

When Avvakum is distracted from the story about himself and moves on to thinking about a person, his fate, he speaks in a high style, resorting to symbolic images. For example, the ship is a symbol of Avvakum's life, in which there were both happiness and sorrow.

There are also miracles in life, but they can also have an everyday explanation. For example, when he is in prison, someone brought him food. He does not understand whether it is an angel or a man. Pashkov almost killed his son - the squeaker misfired three times.

The idea of ​​time changes, the perspective of time appears: it feels differently, depicts time. In hagiographic works, the author is removed from the life of the hero himself - he is abstracted. Avvakum has an egocentric time, the starting point of the depicted events is himself. Therefore, the sequence of events may be disrupted. For example, in the finale, he recalls how he cast out demons. The author and the hero merged into one person.

The space is very vast: Moscow, Tobolsk, Siberia, Baikal.

A bunch of actors: Pashkov, archbishop, tsar, wife, Fedor the holy fool ...

All this makes it possible to call this work the first Russian novel.

But not all researchers think so, since there is no fictional hero, the separation of the author from the hero, there is no artistic world.

It combines sublime poetry and worldly prose.

1. The basis of life is a tale (“blathering”), i.e. colloquial element with a bright emotional coloring.

2. The tale is combined with elements of the biblical book style.

3. Solemn rhetorical layer of style, especially in closing lectures.

Reception of contrast in the image: Peshkov as a beast. Habakkuk is in humility.

There are many unions "a" in the syntax, which shows the diversity of life.

Key Ideas:

The Lord opposes the proud, gives grace to the humble.

The struggle between good and evil.

Avvakum laid the foundation for a whole series of biographies.

The Tale of Frol Skobeev

THE STORY ABOUT FROL SKOBEEV, the first Russian picaresque story of the 17th century. The exact date of writing has not been established. Based on various data, the time period when it could appear extends from 1680 (the adventures of the hero are attributed to this year in some lists) to the 20s of the 18th century. (judging by the peculiarities of vocabulary and realities); by the 18th century include all 9 known lists works. The story was discovered in the collection of M.P. Pogodin in 1853 and then published in the magazine Moskvityanin.

Small in volume, not rich in events, lively and dynamically written story - a kind of apology for cunning, resourcefulness and roguery. Its hero, a resident of the Novgorod district of the "great yabida" Frol Skobeev, earns an attorney's craft, i.e. clerk, decides at all costs to "have love" with Annushka, the daughter of the stolnik Nardin-Nashchokin. To begin with, he meets a certain clerk, in whose house he runs into Annushka's mother. Skobeev gives her two rubles without asking for anything in return. When Annushka invites noble daughters to visit Christmas time through her mother, the unrecognized Frol arrives, dressed in a woman's dress. Having ambushed his mother, he gives her five rubles and reveals who he is, asking to set him up with Annushka, which mother does. They are left in the bedroom, where the deceiver revealed himself to Annushka and, despite her fear, "growth her virginity." When the stolnik called his daughter to Moscow, Frol goes to fetch her. In Moscow, having begged a carriage from a friend of the stolnik Lovchikov and drunk the coachman to unconsciousness, he changes into coachman's clothes and takes the girl away. Annushka and Frol are getting married. The saddened steward informs the sovereign about the disappearance of his daughter. By royal command, the kidnapper must show up, otherwise, if found, he will be executed.

When the stewards come to Ivanovskaya Square in the Kremlin after the liturgy in the Assumption Cathedral, Frol falls at the feet of Nardin-Nashchokin. Together with Lovchikov, he dissuades Annushka's father from complaining to the sovereign. Some time later, Nardin-Nashchokin sends a man to see how his daughter lives. The cunning Frol forces Annushka to go to bed and, through a messenger, tells her father that her daughter is ill and asks for parental forgiveness before she dies. Frightened parents send their daughter an image, one butt of which is worth 500 rubles. Having forgiven their daughter, the parents visit her in a new house and invite Annushka and Frol to their place, ordering the servants not to let anyone in, announcing to everyone: the steward "is eating with his son-in-law, with the thief and rogue Frolka." To maintain family life, the stolnik gives Frol an estate in the Simbirsk district, consisting of 300 households. Over time, the resourceful Frol becomes the heir to all the property of the stolnik, favorably marries his sister, and the mother who helped him is kept in great mercy and honor until her death.

In the story, one can see quite real facts: the names of the characters are found in documents dating back to the 17th century, and the boyar A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin, who headed the Ambassadorial order, could well have been the prototype of the steward. But this work attracts, first of all, with its artistic merits. Here, unlike other ancient Russian stories, the author's speech does not merge with the speech of the characters, which, although not individualized, is close to colloquial speech, rich in lively intonations. There is no instructive element in the story, so characteristic of the stories of the 17th century. (another argument in favor of dating it to the 18th century). Small details specially highlighted by the author are interesting and unusual. The most important events, as in other works of medieval prose, occur at especially significant moments (Christmas time), at especially iconic places(in the church, after the liturgy), but these events themselves are such that the connection with other works of the genre is more like a parody than continuity.

Before the reader is a picaresque short story, which over time will degenerate into the genre of a Christmas story, and its hero is a typical rogue, a rogue, distinguished not by wealth, but by resourcefulness and personal connections. It is not for nothing that it is emphasized that Frol Skobeev is familiar to all the stolniks who have gathered on Ivanovskaya Square. The unknown author of the work openly sympathizes with the hero, and the fact that he is well aware of the command terminology makes it possible to look at the hero presented by him as a self-portrait.

Similar information.

Researchers face another problem: a more accurate dating of the monument: within recent decades XII century. The solution to this question depends on how to define the ideological load of the Lay: whether it meant the general, "eternal" question of the fragmentation of Rus', or whether the author called for unity in the face of a specific danger.

In its fundamental study, Slova comes to the second option. He believes that the "Word" is "a real and timely appeal of some Kievan to those Russian princes who could and should have saved South Rus' from the threat looming over it in the summer of 1185." From this it follows that the "Word" could have been written in 1185, "when the situation was exacerbated to the extreme by external danger and internal discord; it would have been useless in 1186, when nothing was heard about the Polovtsians ... We should, - continues, - exclude not only the quiet 1186, but also the next (the last of the possible), 1187, since in the "Tale of Igor's Campaign" there is no appeal to Vladimir Glebovich Pereyaslavsky, who was seriously wounded in May-June 1185 And by 1187, Vladimir, being "daring and strong in rati," felt himself able to take part in the campaign, but on April 18 he died on the way. In another work, this is how he presents the circumstances in which the "Word" could be created and promulgated. According to the scientist, it "probably was composed and performed in Kiev at the court of the Grand Duke on the occasion of the reception of an unusual guest who needed universal support - Prince Igor, who had just returned from the Polovtsian captivity."

There are some weaknesses in Rybakov's hypothesis. Researchers have already noted as a dating moment the presence in the Lay of a dialogue between the khans Konchak and Gza about the fate of Igor's son, Vladimir, who remained in Polovtsian captivity. Konchak says: "Already the falcon flies to the nest, and all the falcons are entangled with a red damsel." Gza, who proposed to shoot the falconer with green arrows, objects: "If you entangle him with a red maiden, neither we will be a falcon, nor we will be a red maiden, then we will start to beat the bird in the Polovtsian field." As you know, Vladimir really married the daughter of Konchak. The Ipatiev Chronicle under 1188 reports: "... Volodimer came and Polovtsian with Konchakovna, and Igor arranged a wedding for his sons and married him with a child," but could the creator of the Lay already in the summer - autumn of 1185 be sure that so the fate of Vladimir will turn out well after the escape of his father from captivity? The Laurentian Chronicle states that after the prince's escape, the remaining captives "hold the beak firmly and firmly and are confirmed by many glands and executions."

It turns out that it relies not on the data of the monument itself, but on the style of its writing, on the "passionate publicism" of the monument, which determines its confinement to certain important political events. However, dating based on the same assumptions turns out to be quite different: gg.

"Artistic characteristic Svyatoslav of Kyiv, - he says, - differs from the characteristics of other, living princes. The main method of describing Svyatoslav is an epic exaggeration, and in this respect the image of Svyatoslav is very close to such long-dead heroes of the Lay as Vseslav Polotsky, Oleg Gorislavich, Yaroslav Osmomysl, whose characteristics are completed, completed (unlike Igor, Vsevolod, Rurik and others ).

The hyperbolization of Svyatoslav's power, which he did not really possess, resembles the principle of creating a posthumous princely praise in the annals and seems retrospective", that is, the "Word" was written after the death of Svyatoslav of Kiev, who died in July 1194. The "Word" could not have been written later May 1196 - Vsevolod Svyatoslavich, Igor's brother, died this month, and at the end of the monument, a toast to Buy-Turu Vsevolod is proclaimed.

He assumes that the "Word" is an actual appeal to the Russian princes, caused by the events of the years. - the struggle between Rurik Rostislavich, who has now become prince of Kyiv, and Olgovichi - Yaroslav of Chernigov, Igor and Vsevolod Svyatoslavich for the throne of Kiev. Rurik calls for the help of the Polovtsy, and they "rushed to the bloodshed and rejoiced at the wedding [quarrel, discord. - O.T.] in the Russian princes." Naturally, in these years the topic of the perniciousness of princely strife in the face of the Polovtsian danger becomes extremely relevant, and the Lay is devoted to this topic.

In a conflict situation the author of the "Lay", says, also seeks "to justify the Chernigov princes for the defeat of 1185, to prove their military and moral right to be leaders in princely unions, for they acted as courageous representatives of Russia against the" filthy ", they have already" ripened to fight " ; the time of the successful reign of Clair of one of the Olgoviches, Svyatoslav Vsevolodich, a wise and caring prince, has not gone so far. concludes: we see in the "Tale of Igor's Campaign" a reflection not only of all-Russian, popular ideas - a passionate "call of Russian princes to unity", to fight against the enemies of their native land ... but we also find its connection with the specific political situation of the mid-90s years of the 12th century, traces of his topical attitude to events and people.

It should be noted that dating based on a combination of data, that is, both images and the political situation in Rus', has not yet been. Usually, dating is based on the fact that Yaroslav Osmomysl (d. 1187) was mentioned, which raises certain doubts, because it dates not the time of the creation of the monument, but the time described in the monument.

No less important is the problem of the authorship of the Lay: Timofey Raguilovich, Mitusa, Raguil Dobrynich, Belovod Prosovich, Igor himself, proposed for the role of authors, cannot be considered as full-fledged options, because their literary features and horizons are practically unknown, and in this case it is a necessary component of the analysis.

More solid is the hypothesis, which expressed a cautious assumption that the author of the Lay could be the chronicler Peter Borislavich. If the attribution of a number of chronicle fragments to Pyotr Borislavich is correct, then we can judge both his political program and the peculiarities of his language and style. In both, he sees a commonality between the chronicler and the author of the Lay. However, the researcher still considers it necessary to summarize his observations in this way: “It is impossible to prove irrefutably that The Tale of Igor’s Campaign and the chronicle of the Mstislav Tribe (meaning the fragments of the Ipatiev Chronicle attributed to Peter Borislavich. - O. T.) were really written by one person "It is even more difficult to confirm that this person was precisely the Kievan thousand Peter Borislavich. Here we will probably forever remain in the field of hypotheses. But the striking similarity, sometimes turning into identity, almost all the features of both works (taking into account the genre difference) does not allow completely discard the idea of ​​one creator of these two equally brilliant creations.

Old Russian genre story literature

To understand the peculiarity and originality of original Russian literature, to appreciate the courage with which Russian scribes created works that "stand outside genre systems", such as "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", "Instruction" by Vladimir Monomakh, "Prayer" by Daniil Zatochnik and the like , for all this it is necessary to get acquainted with at least some examples of individual genres of translated literature.

Chronicles. Interest in the past of the Universe, the history of other countries, the fate of the great people of antiquity was satisfied by translations of Byzantine chronicles. These chronicles began a presentation of events from the creation of the world, retold the biblical story, cited individual episodes from the history of the countries of the East, told about the campaigns of Alexander the Great, and then about the history of the countries of the Middle East. Having brought the story to the last decades before the beginning of our era, the chroniclers went back and set out the ancient history of Rome, starting from the legendary times of the founding of the city. The rest and, as a rule, most of the chronicles were occupied by the story of the Roman and Byzantine emperors. The chronicles ended with a description of events contemporary to their compilation.

Thus, the chroniclers created the impression of the continuity of the historical process, of a kind of "change of kingdoms." Of the translations of Byzantine chronicles, the most famous in Rus' in the 11th century. received translations of the "Chronicles of George Amartol" and "Chronicles of John Malala". The first of them, together with a continuation made on Byzantine soil, brought the narrative to the middle of the tenth century, the second - to the time of Emperor Justinian (527-565).

Perhaps one of the defining features of the composition of the chronicles was their desire for an exhaustive completeness of the dynastic series. This feature is also characteristic of biblical books (where long lists of genealogies follow), and of medieval chronicles, and of the historical epic.

"Alexandria". The novel about Alexander the Great, the so-called "Alexandria", was very popular in Ancient Rus'. This was not a historically accurate description of the life and deeds of the famous commander, but a typical Hellenistic adventure novel 7.

In "Alexandria" we also encounter action-packed (and also pseudo-historical) collisions. "Alexandria" is an indispensable part of all ancient Russian chronographs; from edition to edition, the adventure and fantasy theme intensifies in it, which once again indicates an interest in the plot-entertaining, and not the actual historical side of this work.

"The Life of Eustathius Plakida". In ancient Russian literature, imbued with the spirit of historicism, turned to worldview problems, there was no place for open literary fiction (readers apparently trusted the miracles of "Alexandria" - after all, all this happened a long time ago and somewhere in unknown lands, at the end of the world!), everyday story or a novel about the private life of a private person. Strange as it may seem at first glance, but to a certain extent the need for such plots was filled by such authoritative and closely related genres as the lives of saints, patericons or apocrypha.

Researchers have long noticed that the lengthy lives of Byzantine saints in some cases were very reminiscent of an ancient novel: sudden changes in the fate of heroes, imaginary death, recognition and meeting after many years of separation, attacks by pirates or predatory animals - all these traditional plot motifs of an adventure novel strangely coexisted in some lives with the idea of ​​glorifying an ascetic or martyr for the Christian faith 8. A typical example of such a life is the "Life of Eustathius Plakida", translated back in Kievan Rus.

Apocrypha. Apocrypha - legends about biblical characters that were not included in canonical (recognized by the church) biblical books, discussions on topics that worried medieval readers: about the struggle in the world of good and evil, about the ultimate fate of mankind, descriptions of heaven and hell or unknown lands "at the end of the world."

Most Apocrypha are entertaining plot stories, which struck the imagination of readers either with everyday details unknown to them about the life of Christ, the apostles, prophets, or with miracles and fantastic visions. The church tried to fight apocryphal literature. Special lists of banned books were compiled - indexes. However, in judgments about which works are unconditionally "renounced books", that is, unacceptable for reading by orthodox Christians, and which are only apocryphal (literally apocryphal - secret, intimate, that is, designed for a reader experienced in theological matters), medieval censors did not there was unity.

The indices varied in composition; in collections, sometimes very authoritative, we also find apocryphal texts next to canonical biblical books and lives. Sometimes, however, even here they were overtaken by the hand of zealots of piety: in some collections, the pages with the text of the Apocrypha are torn out or their text is crossed out. Nevertheless, there were a lot of apocryphal works, and they continued to be copied throughout the centuries-old history of ancient Russian literature.

Patristics. Patristics, that is, the writings of those Roman and Byzantine theologians of the 3rd-7th centuries who enjoyed special authority in the Christian world and were revered as "fathers of the church": John Chrysostom, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus, Athanasius of Alexandria and others.

In their works, the dogmas of the Christian religion were explained, the Holy Scriptures were interpreted, Christian virtues were affirmed and vices were denounced, various worldview questions were raised. At the same time, works of both instructive and solemn eloquence had considerable aesthetic value.

The authors of the solemn words intended to be pronounced in the church during the divine service were perfectly able to create an atmosphere of festive ecstasy or reverence, which was supposed to embrace the faithful when remembering the glorified event of church history, they perfectly mastered the art of rhetoric, which Byzantine writers inherited from antiquity: not by chance, many of the Byzantine theologians studied with pagan rhetors.

In Rus', John Chrysostom (d. 407) was especially famous; from the words belonging to him or attributed to him, entire collections were compiled, bearing the names "Chrysostom" or "Chrystal jet".

The language of liturgical books is especially colorful and rich in paths. Let's give some examples. In service menaias (a collection of services in honor of the saints, arranged according to the days when they are venerated) of the 11th century. we read: "A bunch of thought vines has ripened, but it has been thrown into the winepress of torment, tenderness has poured out wine for us." A literal translation of this phrase will destroy the artistic image, so we will only explain the essence of the metaphor.

The saint is compared to a mature bunch of vines, but it is emphasized that this is not a real, but a spiritual ("mental") vine; the tormented saint is likened to grapes that are crushed in a "winepress" (pit, vat) in order to "exude" the juice for making wine, the torment of the saint "exudes" the "wine of tenderness" - a feeling of reverence and compassion for him.

A few more metaphorical images from the same service menaias of the 11th century: "From the depths of malice, the last tip of the height of virtue, like an eagle, flying high, gloriously ascended, praised Matthew!"; "Strained prayer bows and arrows and a fierce serpent, a creeping serpent, you killed thou, blessed, from that harm the holy herd was delivered"; "The towering sea, charming polytheism, gloriously passed through the storm of divine rule, a quiet haven for all being drowned." "Prayer bows and arrows", "a storm of polytheism", which raises waves on the "beautiful [insidious, deceitful] sea" of vain life - all these are metaphors designed for a reader who has a developed sense of the word and sophisticated figurative thinking, who is excellently versed in traditional Christian symbolism.

And as can be judged from the original works of Russian authors - chroniclers, hagiographers, creators of teachings and solemn words, this high art was fully accepted by them and implemented in their work.

Speaking about the system of genres of ancient Russian literature, one more important circumstance should be noted: for a long time, until the 17th century, this literature did not allow literary fiction. Old Russian authors wrote and read only about what was in reality: about the history of the world, countries, peoples, about generals and kings of antiquity, about holy ascetics. Even transmitting outright miracles, they believed that it could be that there were fantastic creatures inhabiting unknown lands through which Alexander the Great passed with his troops, that in the darkness of caves and cells demons appeared to holy hermits, then tempting them in the form of harlots , then frightening in the guise of beasts and monsters.

Talking about historical events, ancient Russian authors could report different, sometimes mutually exclusive versions: some say so, the chronicler or chronicler will say, while others say otherwise. But in their eyes, this was just the ignorance of informants, so to speak, a delusion from ignorance, however, the idea that this or that version could simply be invented, composed, and even more so composed for purely literary purposes - such an idea to older writers, apparently, seemed unbelievable. This non-recognition of literary fiction also, in turn, determined the system of genres, the range of subjects and topics to which a work of literature could be devoted. The fictional hero will come to Russian literature relatively late - not earlier than the 15th century, although even at that time he will still disguise himself as a hero of a distant country or of ancient times for a long time.

Frank fiction was allowed only in one genre - the genre of the apologist, or parable. It was a miniature story, each of whose characters and the whole plot existed only to illustrate an idea visually. It was an allegory story, and that was its meaning.

In ancient Russian literature, which did not know fiction, historical in big or small, the world itself appeared as something eternal, universal, where the events and actions of people are determined by the very system of the universe, where the forces of good and evil are always fighting, a world whose history is well known ( after all, for each event mentioned in the annals, the exact date was indicated - the time elapsed from the "creation of the world"!) And even the future was predestined: prophecies about the end of the world, the "second coming" of Christ and the Last Judgment awaiting all the people of the earth were widespread.

This general ideological attitude could not but affect the desire to subordinate the very image of the world to certain principles and rules, to determine once and for all what should be depicted and how.

Old Russian literature, like other medieval Christian literature, is subject to a special literary and aesthetic regulation - the so-called literary etiquette.

In ancient Russian literature, a system of genres was defined, within which the development of original Russian literature began. Genres in ancient Russian literature were distinguished by somewhat different features than in the literature of modern times. The main thing in their definition was the "use" of the genre, the "practical purpose" for which this or that work was intended.

Chronographs told about the history of the world; about the history of the fatherland - chronicles, monuments of historical writing and literature of Ancient Rus', the narration in which was conducted over the years. They told about the events of Russian and world history. There was an extensive literature of moralistic biographies - the lives of the saints, or hagiography. Collections of short stories about the life of monks were widely distributed. Such collections were called pateriks.

The genres of solemn and instructive eloquence are represented by various teachings and words. In the solemn words pronounced in the church during the service, Christian holidays were glorified. In the teachings, vices were denounced, virtues were glorified.

The walks told of journeys to the holy land of Palestine.

In this list of the main genres of ancient literature, there are no leading genres of modern literature: neither an everyday novel or a story that reflects private life. common man nor poetry. Some of these genres will appear later.

Despite the multitude of genres, they were in a kind of subordination to each other: there were major and minor genres. Literature in its genre structure, as it were, repeated the structure of feudal society. the main role at the same time belonged, according to D.S. Likhachev, "genres-ensembles". Scattered works were grouped into a coherent whole: chronicles, chronographs, patericons, etc.

The ensemble character of the chronicles was emphasized by the historian V.O. Klyuchevsky: “Life is a whole architectural structure, reminiscent of some details of an architectural structure” 1 .

The concept of "work" was more complex in medieval literature than in modern literature. A work is both a chronicle and individual stories, lives, messages included in it. Separate parts of the work could belong to different genres.

A special place among examples of secular genres is occupied by Vladimir Monomakh's Teaching, The Tale of Igor's Campaign, The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land, and The Tale of Daniil the Sharpener. They testify to the high level of literary development achieved by Ancient Russia in the 11th-first half of the 13th centuries.

The development of ancient Russian literature of the 11th-17th centuries proceeds through the gradual destruction of the stable system of church genres, their transformation. The genres of worldly literature are being fictionalized 2 . They increase interest in the inner world of a person, the psychological motivation of his actions, appear entertaining, everyday descriptions. Historical heroes are being replaced by fictional ones. In the 17th century, this leads to fundamental changes internal structure and style of historical genres and contributes to the birth of new, purely fictional works. Virsh poetry, court and school drama, democratic satire, everyday tales, and picaresque short stories emerge.

Read also other articles in the section "National originality of ancient literature, its emergence and development."

The peculiarities of the medieval worldview determined the differentiation of genre systems in ancient Russian literature into ecclesiastical and secular (secular) literature.

The genre system of church literature was formed in Byzantium and became known in Rus' after the adoption of Christianity. This genre system was distinguished by greater stability and conservatism. However, here we cannot talk about genres in the modern sense. These were a kind of canons, enshrined in the resolutions of church councils and tradition - tradition and charter.

Church literature was associated with the ritual of the Christian cult, monastic life. Its significance, authority was built on a certain hierarchical principle.

The upper step was occupied by the books of "holy scripture",

they were followed by church hymnography and "words" associated with the interpretation of "scripture."

These "words" were usually combined into collections - "celebrators", Triodion colored (holiday) and Lenten.

Then followed the lives - idealized descriptions of the life and exploits of the so-called saints.

Lives, as well as services, were combined into collections: Prologues - collections short lives intended for church services.

Cheti - Menaion (monthly readings) - collections of detailed lives, arranged according to the days of the month.

Pateriki (Paterniks) - stories about the life of monks.

Old Russian writers, relying on Byzantine examples, created a number of outstanding works of hagiographic (hagiographic) original literature. Unlike Byzantine literature, ancient Russian hagiography creates an original genre of princely life, which aimed to strengthen the political authority of the authorities. A distinctive feature of the princely life is historicism, a close connection with chronicle legends, military stories, that is, genres of secular literature. As well as princely lives, on the verge of transition from church to secular genres are "walking" - travel, descriptions of pilgrimages to "holy places".

The system of secular literature genres is more mobile. The dominant position here is occupied by a historical story dedicated to outstanding events connected with the struggle against the external enemies of Rus', as well as with the evil of princely strife. Historical legend and tradition adjoin the story. The basis of the legend is any plot-completed episode, the basis of the legend is an oral legend.

A special place among the worldly genres is occupied by "Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh", "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", "The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land" and "The Prayer of Daniil Zatochnik". It is these works that testify to the high level of literary development achieved by Ancient Russia in the 11th - first half of the 13th century.

The development of ancient Russian literature of the 11th - 17th centuries proceeds through the gradual destruction of a stable system of hagiographic genres, their transformation, the genres of secular literature are subjected to fiction. They increasingly reflect an interest in the inner world of man.

Gradually, in the works of ancient Russian literature, historical heroes are replaced by fictional ones. Virsh poetry, court and school drama, democratic satire, everyday story, picaresque short story arise.

Each genre of ancient Russian literature had a stable internal compositional structure and had its own stylistic pattern.

The basis of the language of the Old Russian literature was the Old Slavonic language, which was close to the Old Russian language and contributed to the enrichment of its vocabulary. It should be borne in mind that if church literature strove to use the Old Slavonic language in purity, then elements of live colloquial speech began to widely penetrate into the works of secular literature even in the early period.