The emergence of oral folk art. Oral folk art: types, genres of works and examples A story on the topic of oral folk art

Irina Khoreva
Article "The history of the emergence of oral folk art".

Education and upbringing of children historically with the development of mankind. To save yourself as a species on Earth, already primitive people were interested in transmitting young generation the experience of obtaining food, protection from the weather, etc. These are the initial types of training and education, when the child mastered knowledge, skills, skills in the process of joint activities with adults, imitating them. The new generation, having taken the experience of their ancestors, used it, making improvements. Along with work experience, the experience of communicating with other people was also passed on. These relations from generation to generation were fixed, developed and improved in language, symbols.

With the development of Russian folk culture , there were rules for the education and upbringing of children, advice and instructions, prohibitions and permissions. Already in the oldest Russian chronicles, in oral folk art, especially in fairy tales and proverbs, the idea is affirmed that a person is educated and taught, that the most valuable human quality is virtue and it must be instilled, it must be taught, because the cause of many human vices is ignorance, ignorance. Virtue is the ability to act well, and to act well, in our case, to possess communication skills.

One of the effective means of educating a person, in the family and not only, is folklore like inexhaustible source of art, the basis folk culture, effective remedy aesthetic education of children, the proven experience of each people. The strength of folklore as a means of family education lies in the fact that its content teaches children to distinguish between good and evil, as well as behavior "it's possible", "it's impossible", "This is good", "this is bad", teaches children to give answers to various life questions.

Listening to the works oral folk art, the child, with the help of his parents, draws conclusions about his behavior, trying to avoid the mistakes of the heroes. Children perceive folklore works well due to their humor, unobtrusiveness, familiar life situations.

Folklore- priceless wealth people, developed over the centuries, a view of life, society and the rules of behavior and communication in it.

Many centuries ago, when there was no written language, oral folklore emerged, fulfilling the same role that the literature later played.

For children people created wonderful fairy tales, songs, nursery rhymes, riddles, sayings, jokes, etc. Works oral folk art has not lost its impact on the child today. Deep moral ideas, dreams and beliefs are reflected in these works. people. Simple and convincing "speaks" a fairy tale about the victory of good over evil, truth over lies, about the triumph of justice. The positive hero of a fairy tale always wins. The fairy tale shows work as the basis of life - a hardworking hero is rewarded, a lazy one is punished. Reason, resourcefulness, courage, wisdom are glorified in the fairy tale.

Most of the songs, nursery rhymes, jokes were created in the process of working in nature in everyday life, in the family. Hence their clarity, rhythm, brevity and expressiveness. Over the centuries people took and kept passing from mouth to mouth, from generation to generation, these little masterpieces full of deep wisdom, lyricism, humor. Thanks to the simplicity and melodiousness of the sound, children, when playing, easily memorize them, acquiring a taste for a figurative, apt word, learning to use it in their speech. This draws the depth of influence on the child of small poetic forms. oral folk art. They also have a moral influence - they awaken in the child a sense of sympathy, love for the people around him, for all living things, interest and respect for work.

With amazing teaching talent "leads" people a child from simple play nursery rhymes to complex poetic images of fairy tales; from amusing, soothing lines to situations that require the tension of all mental strength from a small listener.

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Immensely oral folk art. It has been created for centuries, there are many varieties of it. Translated from in English"folklore" is "folk meaning, wisdom". That is, oral folk art is everything that has been created by the spiritual culture of the population over the centuries historical life his.

Features of Russian folklore

If you carefully read the works of Russian folklore, you will notice that it actually reflects a lot: the play of the imagination of the people, and the history of the country, and laughter, and serious thoughts about human life. Listening to the songs and tales of their ancestors, people thought about many difficult issues of their family, social and working life, pondered how to fight for happiness, improve their lives, what a person should be like, what should be ridiculed and condemned.

Varieties of folklore

Varieties of folklore include fairy tales, epics, songs, proverbs, riddles, calendar refrains, greatness, sayings - everything that was repeated passed from generation to generation. At the same time, the performers often introduced something of their own into the text they liked, changing individual details, images, expressions, imperceptibly improving and honing the work.

Oral folk art for the most part exists in a poetic (poetic) form, since it was it that made it possible to memorize and pass these works from mouth to mouth for centuries.

Songs

The song is a special verbal-musical genre. It is a small lyric-narrative or lyrical work that was created specifically for singing. Their types are as follows: lyrical, dance, ritual, historical. The feelings of one person are expressed in folk songs, but at the same time, many people. They reflected love experiences, events of social and family life, reflections on the hard fate. In folk songs, the so-called parallelism technique is often used, when the mood of a given lyrical hero is transferred to the nature.

Historical songs are dedicated to various famous people and events: the conquest of Siberia by Ermak, the uprising of Stepan Razin, the peasant war led by Emelyan Pugachev, the battle of Poltava with the Swedes, etc. The narrative in historical folk songs about some events is combined with the emotional sound of these works.

epics

The term "epic" was introduced by IP Sakharov in the 19th century. It is an oral folk art in the form of a song, heroic, epic in nature. The epic arose in the 9th century, it was an expression of the historical consciousness of the people of our country. Bogatyrs are the main characters of this kind of folklore. They embody the national ideal of courage, strength, patriotism. Examples of heroes depicted in works of oral folk art: Dobrynya Nikitich, Ilya Muromets, Mikula Selyaninovich, Alyosha Popovich, as well as the merchant Sadko, the giant Svyatogor, Vasily Buslaev and others. The vital basis, while enriched with some fantastic fiction, is the plot of these works. In them, heroes single-handedly overcome entire hordes of enemies, fight monsters, instantly overcome huge distances. This oral folk art is very interesting.

Fairy tales

Epics must be distinguished from fairy tales. These works of oral folk art are based on invented events. Fairy tales can be magical (in which fantastic forces participate), as well as everyday ones, where people are depicted - soldiers, peasants, kings, workers, princesses and princes - in everyday situations. This type of folklore differs from other works in an optimistic plot: in it, good always triumphs over evil, and the latter is either defeated or ridiculed.

legends

We continue to describe the genres of oral folk art. A legend, unlike a fairy tale, is a folk oral story. Its basis is an incredible event, a fantastic image, a miracle, which are perceived by the listener or the narrator as reliable. There are legends about the origin of peoples, countries, seas, about the suffering and exploits of fictional or real-life heroes.

Puzzles

Oral folk art is represented by many mysteries. They are an allegorical image of some object, usually based on a metaphorical rapprochement with it. Riddles in volume are very small, have a certain rhythmic structure, often emphasized by the presence of rhyme. They are designed to develop ingenuity, ingenuity. Riddles are diverse in content and themes. There may be several of their variants about the same phenomenon, animal, object, each of which characterizes it from a certain point of view.

Proverbs and sayings

Genres of oral folk art also include sayings and proverbs. A proverb is a rhythmically organized, short, figurative saying, aphoristic folk saying. It usually has a two-part structure, which is reinforced by rhyme, rhythm, alliteration and assonance.

A proverb is a figurative expression that evaluates a certain phenomenon of life. She, unlike the proverb, is not a whole sentence, but only a part of the statement, which is part of oral folk art.

Proverbs, sayings and riddles are included in the so-called small genres of folklore. What is it? In addition to the above types, they include other oral folk art. The types of small genres are complemented by the following: lullabies, pestles, nursery rhymes, jokes, game refrains, incantations, sentences, riddles. Let's take a closer look at each of them.

Lullabies

Small genres of oral folk art include lullabies. People call them bikes. This name comes from the verb "bait" ("bait") - "to speak". This word has the following ancient meaning: to speak, to whisper. Lullabies got this name not by chance: the oldest of them are directly related to incantation poetry. Struggling with sleep, for example, the peasants said: "Dryomushka, get away from me."

Pestushki and nursery rhymes

Russian oral folk art is also represented by pestushki and nursery rhymes. In their center is the image of a growing child. The name "pestushki" comes from the word "nurture", that is, "follow someone, raise, nurse, carry, educate." They are short sentences that comment on the baby's movements in the first months of a baby's life.

Imperceptibly, the pestles turn into nursery rhymes - songs that accompany the baby's games with fingers and toes. This oral folk art is very diverse. Examples of nursery rhymes: "Magpie", "Okay". They often already have a "lesson", an instruction. For example, in "Magpie" the white-sided woman fed everyone with porridge, except for one lazy person, although the smallest one (the little finger corresponds to him).

jokes

In the first years of children's lives, nannies and mothers sang songs for them of a more complex content, not related to the game. All of them can be designated by a single term "jokes". Their content resembles small fairy tales in verse. For example, about a cockerel - a golden scallop that flew to the Kulikovo field for oats; about a hen ryaba, which "blew peas" and "sowed millet."

In a joke, as a rule, a picture of some bright event is given, or some swift action is depicted in it, corresponding to the active nature of the baby. They are characterized by a plot, but the child is not capable of long-term attention, so they are limited to only one episode.

Sentences, invocations

We continue to consider oral folk art. Its views are supplemented by invocations and sentences. Children on the street very early learn from their peers a variety of nicknames, which are an appeal to birds, rain, rainbows, and the sun. The children, on occasion, shout out the words in a sing-song voice. In addition to the incantations, in a peasant family, any child knew the sentences. They are most often spoken alone. Sentences - an appeal to a mouse, small bugs, a snail. It can be an imitation of various bird voices. Verbal sentences and song calls are filled with faith in the forces of water, heaven, earth (sometimes beneficial, sometimes destructive). Their pronunciation attached to the work and life of adult peasant children. Sentences and invocations are combined into a special department called "calendar children's folklore". This term emphasizes the existing connection between them and the season, the holiday, the weather, the whole way of life and the structure of life in the village.

Game sentences and refrains

Genres of folklore works include play sentences and refrains. They are no less ancient than invocations and sentences. They either connect parts of some game, or start it. They can also play the role of endings, determine the consequences that exist when conditions are violated.

The games are striking in their resemblance to serious peasant occupations: harvesting, hunting, sowing flax. The reproduction of these cases in strict sequence with the help of repeated repetition made it possible to instill with early years child respect for customs and existing order teach the rules of behavior accepted in society. The names of the games - "Bear in the Forest", "Wolf and Geese", "Kite", "Wolf and Sheep" - speak of a connection with the life and life of the rural population.

Conclusion

No less exciting colorful images live in folk epics, fairy tales, legends, songs than in the works of art of classical authors. Peculiar and surprisingly accurate rhymes and sounds, bizarre, beautiful poetic rhythms - like lace weave in the texts of ditties, nursery rhymes, jokes, riddles. And what vivid poetic comparisons we can find in lyrical songs! All this could be created only by the people - the great master of the word.

In the 5th grade we studied children's folklore. I became interested in lullabies and wrote about them scientific work. Another genre of folklore that caught my attention is counting rhymes. IN modern world children know few counting rhymes, there is an impoverishment of the children's subculture. That is why I wanted to know the history of counting rhymes, their development and the reasons why counting rhymes are gradually fading into the background in children's folklore.

My main goal was to compare the role of rhymes in different times and in our days. I saw my tasks as follows:

1. study the scientific literature on the topic;

2. collect counting rhymes (in scientific literature, in the gaming activities of modern schoolchildren);

3. to analyze the collected material;

4. draw conclusions.

The original hypothesis was that children these days know few rhymes, and most of them are meaningless. I was able to find an explanation for this in the scientific literature. During the work, I was convinced of the correctness of the hypothesis and that a large number of developing, educating rhymes created by children's authors are not known to children and are not used in games.

In my work, I used the following methods:

1. analysis, synthesis of the collected material;

2. observation of the games of primary school students;

3. survey of respondents.

A total of 118 people were interviewed, including 20 young children, 58 people aged 7-8, 25 people aged 9-10, 10 people aged 13-15, and 5 people older.

19 people remember 3 or more counting rhymes, 27 people remember 2 rhymes, 72 people remember 1 rhyme.

But, unfortunately, the vast majority (67% of respondents) first of all name a rhyme that is far from being of the most moral nature (“. I took a knife out of my pocket. I will cut, I will beat.”). Children have heard and read author's rhymes, but they almost never use them in the game, because they do not remember them by heart (only 0.8% of the respondents named them). Interesting in the cognitive or moral sense, rhymes are known to 20% of the respondents, meaningless or morally not interesting - 74%. Only 19 people have counting rhymes with humor. raktera (. leniation, the vast majority (67% of respondents) first of all name a rhyme that is far from being the most moral

2. The role of folklore in human life.

The magical realm of folk art is boundless. It has been built up over centuries. In oral folk poetry (or folklore, as international science) in many varieties. Translated into Russian English word"folklore" means "folk wisdom", "folk art" - everything that the spiritual culture of the working people has created over the centuries of its historical life. If we read deeply, think about our Russian folklore, we will see that it really reflected a lot in itself: both our native history, and the play of folk fantasy, and cheerful laughter, and deep folk thoughts about human life. People thought about how to improve their lives, how to fight for a happy share, what should be good man, and what character traits need to be condemned and ridiculed.

Numerous varieties of Russian folklore - epics, fairy tales, proverbs, calendar choruses, riddles - all this arose, repeated, passing from mouth to mouth, from generation to generation, from father to son, from grandmothers to granddaughters. Often, the performers added something of their own to the text they liked, slightly changing individual images, details and expressions, imperceptibly honing and improving the song or fairy tale created before them.

3. Children's folklore. His genres, moral influence.

Children's folklore is a vast area of oral folk art. This is a whole world - bright, joyful, filled with vitality and beauty. Children look with interest at the lives of adults and willingly borrow their experience, but repaint what they have acquired. The thought of children is connected with specific images - this is the key to the secrets of children's artistic creativity.

Folklore for children, created by adults, includes lullabies, pestles, nursery rhymes, jokes, fairy tales. This area of folk art is one of the means of folk pedagogy.

Both children and adults are also well aware of counting rhymes, teasers, tongue twisters and other genres of children's folklore, which are considered to be empty fun. In fact, without these cheerful and funny rhymes, without the verbal game that they contain, the child will never master his native language perfectly, will never become its worthy master, able to express any thoughts, feelings and experiences.

Rhymes, draws, songs and sentences included in the games together make up the game folklore.

Rhymes - short rhymes used to determine the leader or the distribution of roles in the game - the most common genre of children's folklore.

Telling or listening to rhymes gives children great pleasure. Not every child can become a good "counter". Firstly, he must have a tenacious memory, artistry, and secondly, be sure to be honest.

The fact is that counting rhymes are a way of implementing objective justice, invented for children from time immemorial. As if fate itself, and not the authority of an adult (or a ringleader-child), manages the distribution of roles. And if this is so, then winning the game with happiness and luck depends on the player himself. A child in the game must be resourceful, quick-witted, dexterous, kind and even noble. All these qualities in the children's mind, soul, character are developed by a rhyme.

4. The main artistic features of counting rhymes.

The counters have two main features. Firstly, most counting rhymes are based on counting, and secondly, counting rhymes amaze with a heap of meaningless words and consonances. Why did people need a distorted form of words and what was hidden under the habit of using a mysterious account?

A whole group of ancient concepts and ideas is associated with the account of people. It can be assumed that in the old days, when entrusting someone with a common task, people showed extraordinary discretion in numbers. Will the person who carries out the task be happy or unhappy? Before hunting or other fishing, the score decided a lot. A person with an unlucky number could ruin, according to people, the whole thing. This is the purpose of the ancient reckoning. This function of his was preserved in a residual form in children's games.

The simplest form of counting rhymes and, apparently, primordially ancient, can be recognized as a “bare” account. Because of the ban on counting, people had to use conditional forms when counting. So, the inhabitants of the Irkutsk province were forbidden to count the killed game, otherwise there would be no luck in the future; Russians living in Transbaikalia were forbidden to count geese during the flight. The ban on counting was a great inconvenience, and people came up with the so-called “negative” count: a negative particle was added to each numeral: more than once, not twice, etc. It turned out that there was no count. This is the purpose of the distorted form of the account. People also hid the drawing of lots - the recalculation necessary for the distribution of the roles of participants in the fishery. Recalculation - prototype newest forms counting rhymes - a conditional verbal form was given, which was understandable to the people of this group. This is the origin of the "abstruse" account, an example of which is the children's rhyme.

Over time, breaking away from prohibitions and faith in numbers, the counting rhyme began to develop in its own special way. New, purely artistic elements were introduced into it. Distorted words began to be invented in consonance with the old ones, without any connection with the conditional allegorical speech of antiquity. The formation of new words in counting rhymes lost its former meaning and often took the form of pure nonsense.

Nonsense could not live long in folklore, and meaningful disparate phrases, separate words began to penetrate into the counting rhyme. Some content was woven from the words, and soon “plot” provisions appeared.

One of the main features of counting rhymes is a clear rhythm, the ability to shout all the words separately. For children aged 5-6 years, this is a particular pleasure due to the constant requirement of adults to “keep quiet”. Hearing the rhythmic pattern of a counting rhyme and obeying it is not an easy skill. It is acquired by children only in the game. The more reckless the game, the more desirable it is for the child to be elected, the more acutely the children listen to the rhythm of the counting rhyme.

This whole cheerful rhyme is built on onomatopoeia - another feature of counting rhymes. Remember the counting rhyme "Aty-bats, there were soldiers." Its clear rhythm resembles the step of a soldier's company.

5. Classification by content, artistic features, moral meaning.

The most common type of folk rhyme is intended directly for calculating the players. If you need to determine who drives when playing hide-and-seek or tag, then they think so.

A large group of counting rhymes indicates those who will participate in the game. The last one remaining after the calculation leads.

This type of counting rhymes includes those where there is no direct verbal indication of the driver or the way out of the calculation. It is replaced by the last expressive word. In this group, meaningless counting rhymes stand out, with an absurd plot and sound combination.

The next group of counting rhymes - game - is intended both for calculation and for the game. It is these counting rhymes that end with questions, tasks, instructions and other requirements.

The requirements of the rhyme are varied and rarely repeated. For example, in the counting rhyme “They sat on the golden porch. ” you need to correctly answer the question “Who are you?”

To win, you need to remember exactly where the calculation began, quickly count your place in the circle and shout out right word or number. Then the re-calculation will have to be on you, and not on another.

There are counting rhymes where the winner by calculation gives his right to leave the circle to a friend, and he himself remains for new tests.

I would like to pay special attention to literary author's counting rhymes. They are intended mostly for reading, not for calculation. They offer both the child and the adult an intellectual game - to recognize in the counting rhyme its folk prototype, to catch the similarities and differences, the author's irony at the moments of attraction and repulsion from the folklore sample.

The author's rhyme is always action-packed, dynamic, full of bright pictures replacing each other and this reminds of a nursery rhyme. The task of the poet is to captivate the child with action so much that he wants to “finish” the line himself, to predict what will happen next. And the talent of the master is to make the child make mistakes and rejoice at his mistake, because the poet came up with something more interesting, witty, more fun.

What groups are counting rhymes in the scientific literature divided into?

In the monograph by G. S. Vinogradov “Russian children's folklore. Game Preludes” a classification of children's folklore, in particular, rhymes, based on vocabulary, was undertaken. Vinogradov attributed to counting rhymes verses containing counting words (“one, two, three, four, we stood in the apartment”), “abstruse”, distorted counting words (“primary-drugins, pigeons flew”) and equivalents of numerals (“anzy, dvanza, three, kalynza”). To the abstruse Vinogradov attributed the counting rhymes, wholly or partially consisting of meaningless words; to substitution counting rhymes - verses that do not contain either abstruse or counting words.

This classification remains relevant to this day.

The material collected by us allows us to make additions to this classification.

In terms of content, we found the following groups:

1. Rhymes with moral meaning, educating. They teach truthfulness, kindness, caution, and obedience.

2. Cognitive rhymes that broaden your horizons. From them, the child receives knowledge about the world around him, about its inhabitants, nature, phenomena.

3. Unfortunately, we also had to deal with counting rhymes, where obscene vocabulary is found.

In total, we collected 72 rhymes, of which 9% are rhymes with moral meaning, 26.5% are cognitive rhymes, 19% are meaningless, 1.5% are immoral, 31% are rhymes with meaning, but do not teach anything, 7% are rhymes with a humorous form, 6% are with a poetic form.

6. Conclusions on the topic.

Getting started, we assumed that the modern typical child knows fewer rhymes than people of the older generation, since children play less in groups without adult supervision. Scientists say that today we can state the fact that there is an impoverishment of the children's subculture.

But the data obtained literally surprised us. A total of 118 people were interviewed, including 20 young children, 58 people aged 7-8, 25 people aged 9-10, 10 people aged 13-15, and 5 people older.

Out of 98 people, 19 people remember 3 or more counting rhymes, 27 people remember 2 rhymes, 69 people remember 1 rhyme, and not a single 3 people remember.

It turned out that people of the older generation remember the counting rhymes most of all (they played more), as well as younger schoolchildren, because for them it is a living genre.

We believe that our study allows us to draw conclusions about the insufficient attention of educators to joint children's games, to the promotion of the best folklore and author's rhymes among young children.

Publication "History of the emergence of oral folk art"

The education and upbringing of children historically arose with the development of mankind. In order to preserve themselves as a species on Earth, already primitive people were interested in passing on the experience of obtaining food, protection from bad weather, etc. to the younger generation. These are the initial types of education and upbringing, when a child acquires knowledge, skills and abilities in the process of joint activities with adults, imitating them. The new generation, having taken the experience of their ancestors, used it, making improvements. Along with work experience, the experience of communicating with other people was also passed on. These relations from generation to generation were fixed, developed and improved in language, symbols.

With the development of Russian folk culture, rules for the education and upbringing of children, advice and instructions, prohibitions and permissions appeared. Already in the oldest Russian chronicles, in folklore, especially in fairy tales and proverbs, the idea is affirmed that a person is educated and taught, that the most valuable human quality is virtue and it must be instilled, it must be taught, because the cause of many human vices is ignorance, ignorance. Virtue is the ability to act well, and to act well, in our case, to possess communication skills.

One of the effective means of educating a person, in the family and not only, is oral folk art, as an inexhaustible source of art, the basis of folk culture, an effective means of aesthetic education of children, a proven experience of every nation. The strength of folklore as a means of family education lies in the fact that its content teaches children to distinguish between good and evil, as well as the behavior “it is possible”, “it is impossible”, “this is good”, “this is bad”, teaches children to give answers to various life questions.

Listening to the works of oral folk art, the child, with the help of his parents, draws conclusions about his behavior, trying to avoid the mistakes of the heroes. Children perceive folklore works well due to their humor, unobtrusiveness, familiar life situations.

Oral folk art is an invaluable wealth of the people, a view of life, society and the rules of behavior and communication developed over the centuries.

Many centuries ago, when there was no written language, oral folk art arose, performing the same role that literature later played.

For children, the people created wonderful fairy tales, songs, nursery rhymes, riddles, sayings, jokes, etc. The works of oral folk art have not lost their impact on the child today. These works reflected deep moral ideas, dreams and beliefs of the people. The fairy tale speaks simply and convincingly about the victory of good over evil, truth over lies, the triumph of justice. The positive hero of a fairy tale always wins. The fairy tale shows work as the basis of life - a hardworking hero is rewarded, a lazy one is punished. Reason, resourcefulness, courage, wisdom are glorified in the fairy tale.

Most of the songs, nursery rhymes, jokes were created in the process of working in nature in everyday life, in the family. Hence their clarity, rhythm, brevity and expressiveness. For centuries, people have been selecting and preserving, passing from mouth to mouth, from generation to generation, these little masterpieces full of deep wisdom, lyricism and humor. Thanks to the simplicity and melodiousness of the sound, children, when playing, easily memorize them, acquiring a taste for a figurative, apt word, learning to use it in their speech. This draws the depth of influence on the child of small poetic forms of oral folk art. They also have a moral influence - they awaken in the child a sense of sympathy, love for the people around him, for all living things, interest and respect for work.

With an amazing pedagogical talent, he “leads” the people of the child from simple play nursery rhymes to complex poetic images of fairy tales; from amusing, soothing lines to situations that require the tension of all mental strength from a small listener.

Old Russian literature appears with the emergence of the state, writing, and is based on Christian book culture and highly developed forms of oral poetry. the greatest role plays in its formation folk epic 1: historical legends, heroic tales, songs about military campaigns. The princely squads in Ancient Rus' made numerous military campaigns, had their own singers who composed and sang glory songs in honor of the winners, called the prince and the soldiers of his squad. Folklore for ancient literature was the main source that gave images, plots, through folklore the artistic poetic means of folk poetry penetrated into it, as well as the people's understanding of the world around.

Folklore genres were part of literature in all periods of its development. Writing turned to such genres of folk art as legends, proverbs, glories and laments. Both in writing and in folklore, especially in chronicle writing, old traditional figurative expressions, symbols, allegories were used. Many legends in the annals are close to epics in their motives, they use, as in the folk epic, poetic images of giant enemies, terrible monsters, with which heroes enter into a duel, images of wise women. Even in historical genres, appeals, glorifications, laments are close to folk poetry. Characteristic for literary and folklore connections and proximity to the heroic epic. The image of Boyan, the singing of glory to the princes, the song and rhythm of the system, the use of repetitions, hyperbole, the relationship of the images of heroes with epic heroes, the widespread use of folk poetic symbolism (the idea of a battle as sowing, threshing, a wedding feast) is typical for ancient Russian literature. Comparisons of heroes with a cuckoo, an ermine, Bui-Tur are close to symbolic images. Nature in ancient literature, as in folk poetry, mourns, rejoices, helps heroes. The motif of the transformation of heroes, as in fairy tales, into animals and birds is characteristic. The same expressive and visual means are used: parallelisms 2 (“the sun shines in heaven - Igor prince in the Russian land”), tautology 3 (“trumpets blow”, “bridges to bridge”), constant epithets (“greyhound horse”, “black earth”, “green grass”). The speech of the heroes is allegorical, the pictures of visions are symbolic. The presence of artistic means in individual works indicates their proximity to the folk poetic system. The connection with folklore is palpable in almost every work of ancient literature, somewhere they are more noticeable, somewhere less. Some genres are close to the song lyrical genres of folk poetry - these are glories and laments, they contain folk language, folk images and intonation (“oh, light bright and redly decorated”).

In the 16th and especially in XVII centuries ancient literature is getting closer and closer to folk art. This is explained both by general socio-historical factors in the development of the Russian state, and by the peculiar character of the literature of that time. A new democratic reader appears - a peasant, a peasant, a merchant's son, a service man. Literature itself becomes more democratic and moves away from the canonical norms that restrain its development. It develops a secular beginning. The writer now has greater freedom of artistic creation, the right to fiction. New genres appear: everyday and satirical stories, new themes, new heroes. Ancient scribes use living colloquial and more widely turn to folklore. Satirical everyday stories represent the processing of fairy tales, close to folk poetry in the outline actors, comic situations, reminiscent of fairy-tale comedy.

Proximity to folklore is also reflected in the depiction of the characters. So, the name of Ersh Ershovich resembles fairy-tale names - Voron-Voronovich, Sokol-Sokolovich, Zmey-Zmeevich. As in folk tales, ancient literature presents the image of a poor, but resourceful and cunning peasant who deceived the judge ("The Tale of the Shemyakin Court"). Also in the literature of this time, the plot of the work is taken from folk Russian lyric songs (“The Tale of Grief-Misfortune”), where Grief pursues a married woman or a good fellow. The name itself is popular. The images of Grief and Well done are created in the traditions of folk art: the same artistic techniques - parallelisms, constant epithets, comparisons that are present in folklore works. The verse is close to epic.

Many ancient writers were very close to the art of the spoken word. Old Russian narrative literature correlated with the genres of folk art.

In the Middle Ages, folklore supplemented literature; these were, according to V.P. Adrianov-Peretz, "two closely coupled regions" 4 . The system of literary genres was supplemented by a number of folklore genres and existed in parallel with folklore genres. However, there is a deeper connection between folklore and ancient literature: traditional images, comparisons, metaphors go back to common genetic roots.

Ethnographic features are an essential element of Old Russian literature and many of its genres. They appear in the chronicles, in the description of the life of peoples, estates, tribes, their customs, beliefs, as well as in the description of localities and nature with the help of ethnographic signs, terms and concepts (“the Russian land is the Polovtsian land”, “horses neigh near Suzdal, victories ring in Kiev”). Ethnographic details are also noticeable in the description of military attributes 5 - banners, banners, banners, military customs, training, preparation for battle, going on a campaign. Ethnographic elements reflect real historical events, enhance the plausibility of the depicted, saturate the work of art with everyday and battle paintings of Rus' in the 11th-17th centuries.

The formation of ancient literature was facilitated by oral speech and business writing. They penetrated the artistic texts of ancient literature. Laconism, accuracy of expressions in oral speech and business writing contributed to the development of the plot and style of presentation in the literary monuments of Ancient Rus'.

The main keepers and copyists of books were monks. Therefore, most of the books that have come down to us are ecclesiastical in nature. Ancient literature combines secular and spiritual beginnings. In many genres, there is often an appeal to God as a “savior”, “almighty”, relying on his mercy .... Mention of divine providence and destiny, a sense of the world in its dual essence, “real and divine”, is characteristic of this literature. The works of ancient writers include fragments of monuments of Christian book culture, images from the Gospel, the Old and New Testaments, Psalms. After the adoption of Christianity, the ancient Russian scribes needed to be told about how the world works from a Christian point of view, and they turned to the books of Holy Scripture.