Question: Laboratory (practical) work "Muscles of the human body." Muscle structure - Knowledge Hypermarket Practical work on the biology of muscles of the human body

30. Read paragraph 10. Draw a diagram of the list of functions of the musculoskeletal system

Functions of the musculoskeletal system

Support

Protective

Motor

31. Expand the role of organic and inorganic substances of bone by completing the statements

Organic substances give bones flexibility

Inorganic substances give bones hardness

The combination of these substances provides strength, elasticity

32. Fill in the text about the structure of the tubular bone with the missing words: articular cartilage, periosteum, compact substance, medullary cavity, spongy substance, red bone marrow, yellow bone marrow

The tubular bone consists of a middle part - the body of the bone and two heads that articulate with other bones. The body of the bone and the outer part of the heads are covered with periosteum, and the articular surfaces of the heads are articular cartilage. Inside the heads is spongy substance containing red bone marrow, in which blood cells are formed. The body of the bone consists of compact substance, inside which is medullary cavity. It is filled with yellow bone marrow, which is mainly adipose tissue

33. Answer why, despite the fact that bone growth in thickness occurs continuously due to the periosteum, the bone of an adult does not become more massive

The curing process ends

34. Report on laboratory work “Microscopic structure of bone” (p. 49 of the textbook)

1. The micropreparation shows a cross section of bone

2. Drawing of the microscopic structure of bone with the designation of details seen through a microscope

3. Answers to the questions of task No. 4 of laboratory work

Cross section. The plane is lighter. More air passes through and is therefore lighter

35. Read paragraph 11 “Human skeleton. Axial skeleton." Fill out the table, enter the paired and unpaired bones of the skull, as well as the numbers with which these bones are indicated in the figure

36. Look at the picture showing the axial skeleton and pelvis of a chimpanzee and a human. Answer the following questions

1) Why does a chimpanzee’s spine have two curves, while a human’s has 4?

Man is upright

2) Why does the occipital bone of a chimpanzee have powerful ridges, but humans do not?

Impact protection

3) How can we explain that the difference in the mass of the cervical and lumbar vertebrae in humans is greater than in gorilla?

Man is upright

4) Why is the human pelvis shaped like a bowl, but that of chimpanzees is not?

The body rests on it, while in chimpanzees the load is on the legs

37. The figure shows the cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae. The common parts of the vertebrae are indicated by numbers, the distinctive features are indicated by letters. Next to the names of the parts of the vertebrae given below, write the numbers and letters with which they are marked in the figure:

Vertebral body - 5

The hole that forms the spinal canal with other vertebrae - 3

Posterior process - 1

Lateral processes -4

The openings of the cervical vertebrae through which blood vessels pass into the head - A

Articular platforms on the body of the thoracic vertebrae and lateral processes, articulating with the ribs - B

Are these signs present in the lumbar vertebrae?

Yes, because lumbar similar to thoracic

38. Name the bones shown in the picture

2 - cervical vertebra

3 - collarbone

4 - blades

5 - sternum

8 - radius

9 - radioulnar bone

11 - sacrum

39. Answer questions

1) How many pairs of ribs are connected to the sternum using cartilage? - 7 pairs

2) How many pairs of edges end freely? - Two pairs

3) What is the function of the cartilage discs between the vertebrae?

Gives elasticity, mobility, reduces shaking when walking, jumping, etc.

40. Write the names of the parts of the joint indicated in the picture

1 - articular cartilaginous surface

2 - articular cartilaginous surface

3 - internal ligament

4 - articular cavity

41. Write captions for pictures

Bones of the upper limb:

1 - collarbone

2 - blade

3 - humerus

4 - radius

6 - wrist

8 - phalanges of fingers

Bones of the lower limb and sacrum:

2 - lumbar vertebra

3 - femur

4 - tibia

5 - fibula

6 - tarsus

7 - metatarsus

8 - phalanges of fingers

42. Complete the statements

The hand differs from the foot by movable phalanges and metacarpus (the hand can be gathered into a handful!), long fingers and the opposition of the thumb to all the others. The foot is represented by powerful bones calcaneal and talus, short fingers, the thumb is the support for the rest. The arches of the foot allow a person walk and balance

43. Repeat the article “Types of muscle tissue”, paragraph 8. Draw a smooth muscle cell and a striated muscle tissue cell. Mark Features

Note the features of striated muscle tissue:

work both reflexively and by human will

44. Consider Fig. 34 textbooks. Locate the belly and tendons of the biceps muscle. After reading the articles “Macroscopic structure of muscles” and “Movements in joints”, paragraph 13, enter the concepts defined below

A tendon attached to a section of bone that most often remains motionless is called a head, and a tendon attached to a movable bone is called a tail. Muscles that act in the opposite direction are called antagonists, and muscles that act in the same direction are called synergists.

45. Complete the laboratory work “Muscles of the Human Body” (p. 64 of the textbook) and, after studying Fig. 35 and 36, fill in the right column of the table

Functions of muscles and muscle groups	Name muscles and muscle groups
Muscles with one end attached to the bones of the skull and the other to the skin or only to the skin	facial muscles
Muscles that move the lower jaw	masticatory muscles
Muscle of the neck and back that tilts the head back	trapezius muscle
Muscles that tilt the head forward when they contract together, and tilt the head to the sides when they contract alone	pectoroclavicular mastoid muscle
The back muscle that abducts the arms behind the back	latissimus dorsi muscle
Chest muscles, abducting shoulders and arms bent at the elbow, forward	pectoralis major muscle
Muscles that cause expansion and contraction of the chest	intercostal muscles
Muscles that lift the body from a lying position to a sitting position with fixed legs	abdominal muscles
Muscles that support upright posture	deep and gluteal muscles
Shoulder abductor muscle	deltoid
Muscles that flex the fingers and hand into a fist	forearm muscles

46. ​​Give some examples of muscles that work as antagonists and as synergists

47. The figure shows a motor neuron. Sign its parts

2 - dendrites

4 - synapse

Indicate how many muscle fibers are controlled by the motor neuron shown in the figure

48. Write how a workout should be organized so that there is a training effect (synthesis in muscle tissue prevails over breakdown)

Consistent training required

49. Specify the consequences of physical inactivity

Changes in muscles: weak muscles

Changes in bones: brittle and weak

Changes in the blood: hemoglobin drops

50. Read the article “Regulation of the work of antagonist muscles”, paragraph 14 and fill out the table by entering the words in the appropriate columns: excited, inhibited, contracted, relaxed

Types of nerve centers	Flexor nerve centers	Extensor nerve centers	Flexor muscles	Extensor muscles
Hand condition
Flexion of the arm at the elbow joint	excited	inhibited	reduced	relaxed
Swelling of the arm at the elbow joint	inhibited	excited	relaxed	reduced
Holding a load in the elbow joint	excited	excited	reduced	reduced
inhibited	inhibited	inhibited	relaxed

51. Enter the concepts defined below

Work associated with moving a body or load is called dynamic

Work associated with maintaining a pose or holding a load is called static

52. Report on laboratory work “Fatigue during static work” (p. 72 of the textbook)

53. Read paragraph 15 “Posture. Flatfoot warning." List the causes of poor posture

If you sit incorrectly, walk bent over and sleep on soft things, it develops.

54. Name the factors contributing to the development of flat feet

If you don’t wear heels and often wear sneakers, then flat feet develop

55. Report on laboratory work “Posture and flat feet” (p. 75 of the textbook)

I. Detection of postural disorders

1. Detecting stoop

Conclusion: I do not have a posture disorder

2. Detection of disorders in the lumbar curve area

When the body is positioned with its back to the wall, when the heels, shins, pelvis and shoulder blades touch the wall, a palm passes between the wall and the lower back (a fist or just a palm)

Conclusion: I do not have a lumbar curve disorder

II. Detection of flat feet (work done at home)

The footprint in its narrow part (either extends or does not extend) - does not extend beyond the line connecting the center of the heel and the center of the third toe (see Fig. 39 on p. 74 of the textbook)

Conclusion: I do not have flat feet

56. Read paragraph 16 “First aid for bruises, broken bones and dislocated joints”, look at the pictures and fill out the table

57. If a fracture of the forearm bones was suspected, a splint was applied, and the arm itself was fixed with a scarf. Determine what mistake was made when providing assistance to the victim. What consequences can it lead to?

It is necessary to apply a splint so that it does not involve more than 2 joints

58. Solve crossword number 4

Horizontally:

1. vertebra

3. shoulder blade

6. synergists

12. osteochondrosis

14.periosteum

Vertically:

1. flat feet

4. antagonists

5. fracture

8. collarbone

9. dry housing

Using drawings and anatomical descriptions, identify the location of muscle groups and the movements they perform.

I. Muscles of the head

The muscles of facial expression are attached to the bones, skin or only to the skin; the muscles of mastication are attached to the bones of the fixed part of the skull and to the lower jaw.

Task 1. Determine the function of the temporal muscles. Place your hands on your temples and make chewing movements. The muscle tenses as it lifts the lower jaw upward. Find the masseter muscle. It is located near the jaw joints, about 1 cm in front of them. Determine: are the temporal and masticatory muscles synergists or antagonists?

Task 2. Get to know the function of facial muscles. Take a mirror and wrinkle your forehead, which is what we do when we are unhappy or when we are thinking. The supracranial muscle contracts. Find it in the picture. Observe the function of the orbicularis oculi and orbicularis oris muscles. The first one closes the eye, the second one closes the mouth.

II. The sternocleidomastoid muscle on the anterior surface of the neck ().

Task 3. Turn your head to the right and feel the left sternocleidomastoid muscle. Turn your head to the left and find the right one. These muscles turn the head left and right, acting as antagonists, but when contracted together, they become synergists and lower the head down.

III. Muscles of the torso in front ().

Task 4. Find the pectoralis major muscle. This paired muscle tenses if you bend your arms at the elbow and forcefully fold them on your chest.

Task 5. Look at the picture of the abdominal muscles that form the abdominal press. They are involved in breathing, bending the body to the sides and forward, and transferring the body from a lying to a sitting position with fixed legs.

Task 6. Find the intercostal muscles: the external ones inhale, the internal ones exhale.

IV. Muscles of the trunk at the back ().

Task 7. Find the trapezius muscle in the picture. If you squeeze your shoulder blades and throw your head back, it will be tense.

Task 8. Find the latissimus dorsi muscle. She lowers her shoulder down and puts her hands behind her back.

Task 9. Along the spine there are deep back muscles. They straighten the body, tilting the body back. Determine their position.

Task 10. Find the gluteal muscles. They abduct the hip. The deep muscles of the back and gluteal muscles in humans are most strongly developed due to upright posture. They resist gravity.

V Arm muscles ().

Task 11. Find the deltoid muscle in the picture. It is located above the shoulder joint and moves the arm to the side to a horizontal position.

Task 12. Find the biceps and triceps brachii muscles. Are they antagonists or synergists?

Task 13. Muscles of the forearm. To understand their function, place your hand on a table, palm side down. Press it to the table or clench your hand into a fist and unclench it. You will feel the muscles in your forearm contract. This happens because on the palm side of the forearm there are muscles that flex the hand and fingers, and those that extend them are located on the back of the forearm.

Task 14. Feel near the wrist joint from the palmar surface of the tendons that go to the muscles of the fingers. Think about why these muscles are on the forearm and not on the hand.

VI. Leg muscles (according to the picture).

Laboratory (practical) work "Muscles of the human body"

Answers:

LEG MUSCLES: This muscle flexes the thigh, pulling the knee toward the chest and rotating it at the hip joint, and also extends the leg at the knee. 1. Muscles of the head: the facial muscle is attached to the bones, the chewing muscles - the bones of the fixed part of the skull and the lower part of the jaw 2, the sternocleidomastoid muscle These muscles turn the head to the left, to the right, acting antagonistically 3. Muscles of the trunk behind: The abdominal wall is formed by a group of its own abdominal muscles. The external and internal oblique and transverse muscles are called the “latus abdominis.” The tendon fibers of their aponeuroses, intertwining in front, form the linea alba in the middle of the abdominal wall. The broad muscles have an oblique direction of fibers and lie, as on the chest, in three layers, with the external oblique abdominal muscle being a continuation of the external intercostal muscles, the internal oblique - the internal intercostal muscles, and the transverse abdominal muscle - the chest muscle of the same name. The quadratus lumborum muscle forms the posterior abdominal wall. The lower wall of the abdominal cavity (or pelvic floor) is called the “perineum.” Muscles of the trunk behind: Paired, occupy the entire dorsal surface of the body. They lie in several layers (superficial and deep). Superficial muscles moved during development from the limbs to the back. The deep ones were formed from muscle anlages - myotomes. They partially preserved the segmental structure

Lab 3

MUSCLES OF THE HEAD, NECK AND TORSO

Goal of the work: following the assignments of the practical part of the laboratory work, consider the anatomical structure of the muscles of the head, neck and torso, answer control questions.

Theoretical part

1.1 Head muscles

The muscles of the head are divided into facial muscles (facial muscles) and masticatory muscles. The facial muscles are located just under the skin. When they contract, they shift areas of the scalp, giving the face a certain expression (facial expressions). The muscles of mastication displace the lower jaw during contraction, causing the act of chewing.

1 Facial muscles (Figure 1):

occipitofrontalis muscle , t. oscipitofrontalis (L) ;

nasal muscle, n. nasalis (B) ;

orbicularis oculi muscle, m. orbicularis oculi (K) ;

corrugator muscle m. corrugator supercilii (A);

anterior, superior and posterior auricular muscles, mm. auriculares anterior, superior et posterior;

orbicularis oris muscle, m. orbicularis oris (E);

zygomaticus major and minor muscles, mm. zigomaticus major et minor (I) ;

levator labii superioris muscle m. levator labii superioris (J) ;

muscle that depresses the lower lip m. depressor labii inferioris (F);

buccal muscle, m. buccinators, forms the base of the cheeks (D) ;

mental muscle, m. mentalis (G) ;

2 Chewing muscles (Figure 2):

masticatory muscle, m. masseter (C) ;

temporal muscle, m. temporalis (M);

lateral pterygoid muscle, m. pterygoideus lateralis (N);

medial pterygoid muscle, m. pterygoideus medialis (O).

1.2 Neck muscles

The neck muscles are presented in Figure 3; they are divided into three groups:

– surface group, which includes:

subcutaneous muscle of the neck, platysma

sternocleidomastoid muscle, m. stemocleidomastoideus.

– the median muscle group, which includes the muscles lying above and below the hyoid bone:

a) suprahyoid muscles:

1) are antagonists of the masticatory muscles, lower the lower jaw with the hyoid bone fixed:

2) digastric muscle, m. digastricus (A);

3) stylohyoid muscle, m. stylohyoideus (J);

4) mylohyoid muscle, m. mylohyoideus (B);

5) geniohyoid muscle, m. Geniohyoideus;

b) sublingual muscles:

1) sternohyoid muscle, m. sternohyoideus (I);

2) omohyoid muscle, m. omohyoidees (H);

3) sternothyroid muscle, T.sternothyroideus (D);

4) thyrohyoid muscle, m. thyrohyoideus (C);

– deep group includes:

a) longus colli muscle, m. longus colli;

b) longus capitis muscle, m. longus capitis;

c) anterior scalene muscle, m. scalenus anterior (F);

d) middle scalene muscle, m. scalenus medius (G);

e) posterior scalene muscle, m. scalenus posterior (E).

1.3 Back muscles

The back muscles, shown in Figure 4, lie in several layers, ensuring the vertical position of the body in space, the movement of the spinal column and ribs, and participate in the formation of the walls of the chest, abdominal and pelvic cavities.

The back muscles are arranged in layers, among them there are superficial and deep muscles.

The superficial back muscle group includes:

trapezius muscle, m. trapezius (K);

latissimus dorsi muscle m. latissimus dorsi (J);

rhomboid muscles, major and minor, mm. rhomboidei major et minor (D);

levator scapula muscle T.levator scapulae(C);

serratus posterior inferior muscle T. serratus posterior inferior (H);

serratus posterior superior muscle m. serratus posterior superior (G).

The deep back muscle group includes:

a) splenius capitis muscle , T.splenius capiti (B);

b) splenius neck muscle , m. splenius cervicis;

c) the erector spinae muscle m. erector spinae (I), which is divided into three parts:

1) spinalis muscle;

2) longissimus muscle;

3) iliocostal muscle.

d) intertransverse and interspinous muscles, mm. interspinales et intertransversarii;

e) semispinalis muscle, m. semispinalis (A) , which is divided into three parts:

1) semispinalis muscle of the chest , m. semispinalis thoracis;

2) semispinalis muscle of the neck , m. semispinalis cervicis;

3) semispinalis capitis muscle , m. semispinalis capitis.

1.4 Chest muscles

The chest muscles, shown in Figure 5, on one side cover the outside of the chest, attaching to the bones of the upper limb girdle and humerus, and on the other, fill the gaps between the ribs, also connecting them to the thoracic spine. This muscle group includes:

a) pectoralis major muscle, m. pectoralis major (J) , it is located in the upper part of the chest, it contains:

clavicular part , pars clavicularis;

sternocostal part , pars sternocostal;

abdominal part, pars abdominalis.

b) pectoralis minor muscle, m. pectoralis minor (B);

c) subclavian muscle, m. subclavius (A);

d) serratus anterior muscle, m. serratus anterior (I);

e) external intercostal muscles, mm. intercostales externi (C);

e) internal intercostal muscles, mm. intercostales interni (D).

1.6 Abdominal muscles(Figure 5)

The abdominal muscles shown in Figure 5 are divided into three groups;

– anterior group of abdominal muscles, which include:

a) rectus abdominis muscle, m. rectus abdominis (H);

b) pyramidalis muscle, m. pyramidalis;

– lateral group of abdominal muscles, which include:

a) external oblique abdominal muscle, m. obliquus externus abdominis (E);

b) internal oblique muscle of the abdomen, m. obliquus internus abdominis (F);

c) transverse abdominal muscle, m. transversus abdominis (G);

– the posterior group of abdominal muscles, which include the quadratus lumborum muscle, m. quadrates lumbocum.

Practical part

Exercise 1. Consider the facial muscles presented in Figure 1, using the notation to learn the location of the muscles and their names. In your workbook, make a table in which you sign the notation in Russian and Latin, attachment points and function.

Figure 1 - Facial muscles (according to E. Alcamo).

Example table

Table 1 - Facial and masticatory muscles

Task 2. Consider the masticatory muscles presented in Figure 2, using the notation to learn the location of the muscles and their names. In your workbook, make a table in which you sign the notation in Russian and Latin, attachment points and function.

Figure 2 - Chewing muscles (according to E. Alcamo).

Task 3. Examine the neck muscles shown in Figure 3 (front view), using the notation to learn the location of the muscles and their names. In your workbook, make a table in which you sign the notation in Russian and Latin, attachment points and function.

Figure 3 – Neck muscles (according to E.V. Semenov with modifications).

Task 4. Consider the back muscles presented in Figure 4 (front view), using the notation, learn the location of the muscles and their names. In your workbook, make a table in which you sign the notation in Russian and Latin, attachment points and function.

Figure 4 – Back muscles (according to E. Alcamo).

Task 5. Figure 5 shows the muscles of the chest and abdomen (front and back views); using the notations, learn the location of the muscles and their names. In your workbook, make a table in which you sign the notation in Russian and Latin, attachment points and function.

Figure 5 – Muscles of the chest and abdomen, front view (according to E. Alcamo).

Control questions:

List the facial muscles of the head, name the points of attachment and the functions that these muscles perform.

List the masticatory muscles of the head, name the points of attachment and the functions that these muscles perform.

What muscles are the superficial muscles of the neck? Name the points of attachment of the superficial muscles of the neck.

What muscles belong to the middle muscle group of the neck? Name the points of attachment of the neck muscles of the middle layer.

Name the attachment points and functions of the suprahyoid muscle group of the neck.

Name the attachment points and functions of the subhyoid group of muscles of the neck.

What muscles are the deep muscles of the neck?

Name the attachment points and functions of the back muscles.

Name the attachment points and functions of the superficial group of back muscles.

Name the attachment points and functions of the deep back muscle group.

Name the attachment points and functions of the chest muscles.

Name the attachment points and functions of the abdominal muscles.

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Subject. The main human muscle groups and their functions

General provisions of myology. Skeletal muscles constitute the active part of the movement apparatus. The total number of skeletal muscles is more than 400. Their total mass is about 40% of the total body mass of an adult. Muscles are attached by their tendons to various parts of the skeleton. Depending on their location, they distinguish between the muscles of the trunk, the muscles of the neck, the muscles of the head, the muscles of the upper extremities and the muscles of the lower extremities.

Each muscle has a contracting part, the muscle belly, or body, and a non-contracting part, the tendon. Typically, a muscle has two tendons that attach it to the bones. The belly of the muscle is formed by muscle fibers called symplasts. Each simplast - muscle tissue cell - is a complex system consisting of a membrane, cytoplasm, organelles “floating” in the cytoplasm and nuclei. In addition to the usual organelles that are inherent in every eukaryotic cell, the symplast contains two types of myofibrils. The first type of myofibrils is formed by the protein actin, and the second type is formed by the protein myosin. Thanks to the ability of these proteins to contract, a muscle can work and a person can move.

There are three main types of muscles based on their shape: long, short and wide. Long muscles are located mainly on the limbs. They have a spindle-shaped shape. Some long muscles have multiple attachment points, for example, the biceps brachii has two insertions, the triceps has three, and the quadriceps femoris has four. The short muscles are located between individual ribs and vertebrae. The broad muscles lie predominantly on the torso and have the form of layers of varying thickness. For example, the latissimus dorsi muscle.

1. Muscles of the head are divided into muscles of mastication and facial expression.

To the masticatory muscles include: 1. muscles that lift the jaw (temporalis, masseter, internal pterygoid) and 2. muscles that lower the jaw (digastric, muscles of the hyoid bone, subcutaneous muscles of the neck).

To facial muscles include: supracranial, orbicularis oculi, levator of the upper eyelid, corrugator of the brow, nasal, orbicularis oris, buccal, prouder muscle, levator labii superioris, zygomatic muscle, depressor anguli oris muscle, depressor inferior lip muscle, nasal muscle, laughter muscle .

2. Neck muscles are divided into superficial and deep muscles of the neck. The superficial muscles of the neck include the subcutaneous, which lowers the corner of the mouth, the sternocleidomastoid, which, with its unilateral contraction, turns the head, and with a bilateral contraction, tilts the head back, sternothyroid, sternohyoid, splenius.

3. Muscles of the trunk divided into back muscles, chest muscles and abdominal muscles.

To the back muscles include trapezius, latissimus, serratus posterior, erector spinae, infraspinatus, teres minor.

To the chest muscles include the pectoralis major, subclavian, serratus anterior, external intercostal, internal intercostal, and diaphragm.

To the abdominal muscles include the external oblique abdominis, transverse, rectus, and quadratus lumborum muscles. These muscles are involved in body movements (bending the torso, turning it to the sides, lowering the ribs) and act as the abdominal press.

4. Muscles of the upper limb divided into muscles of the shoulder girdle, shoulder, forearm and hand.

Muscles of the shoulder girdle: deltoid (abducts the arm), teres major and subscapularis muscles (lowers the raised arm).

Shoulder muscles: biceps (biceps) – flexes the elbow joint; brachialis muscle - flexes the forearm; triceps brachii (triceps) – extends the forearm; ulna – helps to extend the forearm, pronator teres.

Forearm muscles: brachioradialis – flexes the forearm; flexor carpi radialis and ulnaris; longus palmaris muscle - involved in flexion of the hand; flexors of the fingers; extensor of the fingers; extensor wrist; extensor carpi.

5. Muscles of the lower limb divided into muscles of the pelvis, thigh, lower leg and foot.

Pelvic muscles: gluteus maximus – extends the hip; gluteus medius – abducts the thigh; piriformis – rotates the hip outward, iliopsoas...

Thigh muscles: sartorius – flexes the thigh and lower leg; quadriceps femoris (quadriceps) – extends the leg at the knee joint; semitendinosus, semimembranosus, biceps femoris - all muscles have the same function: they bend the leg at the knee joint, pectineus, adductor longus, gracilis, adductor magnus.

Calf muscles: anterior tibial – extends the foot; the triceps surae muscle, consisting of two muscles: the gastrocnemius and the soleus, flexes the foot at the ankle joint; posterior tibial – flexes the foot; flexor toes longus, extensor digitorum longus, peroneus longus, peroneus brevis, plantar.

Muscles that produce inhalation: diaphragm, external intercostal, levator ribs, posterior superior serratus, scalene.

Muscles that produce exhalation: rectus abdominis, transverse abdominis, external and internal oblique abdominis, intercostal, subcostal, transverse thoracic muscle.

Homework:

1. Learn the general principles of myology;
2. Learn the muscles listed;
3. Be able to determine the topography of these muscles;
4. Learn muscle functions.

Use the pictures below to study.